Prolog: Resolution, Unification, & Cuts
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1 CS 152: Programming Language Paradigms Prolog: Resolution, Unification, & Cuts Prof. Tom Austin San José State University
2 References for Prolog "Learn Prolog Now", SWI-Prolog website (contains manual and tutorials), "NLP with Prolog in the IBM Watson System", natural-language-processing-with-prolog-inthe-ibm-watson-system/
3 Review: Facts likes(batman, gotham). likes(batman, justice). likes(ras_al_ghul, justice). likes(ras_al_ghul, revenge).
4 Review: Queries & Variables What do Batman and Ra's al Ghul both like? X is a variable comma is "and"?- likes(batman,x), likes(ras_al_ghul,x).
5 How does Prolog resolve queries? Through 2 processes: Resolution Unification
6 Resolution & Unification Resolution: The process of matching facts & rules to perform inferencing infer: derive logical conclusions from the rules. If a subgoal matches the head of another rule, we can replace it with the body of the matching rule. Unification: Instantiation of variables via pattern matching
7 Query: likes(batman, X), likes(ras_al_ghul, X). Knowledge Base: likes(batman, gotham). likes(batman, justice). likes(ras_al_ghul, justice). likes(ras_al_ghul, revenge).
8 Query: likes(batman, X), likes(ras_al_ghul, X). Finds match for first sub-query; sets a marker Knowledge Base: likes(batman, gotham). likes(batman, justice). likes(ras_al_ghul, justice). likes(ras_al_ghul, revenge).
9 Query: likes(batman, gotham), likes(ras_al_ghul, gotham). Knowledge Base: likes(batman, gotham). likes(batman, justice). likes(ras_al_ghul, justice). likes(ras_al_ghul, revenge). X is bound to gotham
10 Query: No match found: fails and backtracks likes(batman, gotham), likes(ras_al_ghul, gotham). Knowledge to marker Base: likes(batman, gotham). likes(batman, justice). likes(ras_al_ghul, justice). likes(ras_al_ghul, revenge).
11 Query: likes(batman, X), likes(ras_al_ghul, X). Finds another match for first sub-query Knowledge Base: likes(batman, gotham). likes(batman, justice). likes(ras_al_ghul, justice). likes(ras_al_ghul, revenge).
12 Query: likes(batman, justice), likes(ras_al_ghul, justice). Knowledge Base: likes(batman, gotham). likes(batman, justice). likes(ras_al_ghul, justice). likes(ras_al_ghul, revenge). X is bound to justice
13 Query: likes(batman, justice), likes(ras_al_ghul, justice). Knowledge Base: likes(batman, gotham). likes(batman, justice). Match found, and the result is returned likes(ras_al_ghul, justice). likes(ras_al_ghul, revenge).
14 More facts: villain(joker). villain(penguin). villain(catwoman). villain(scarecrow). kills_people(joker). kills_people(penguin). power(scarecrow, fear). romantic_interest(catwoman). romantic_interest(talia).
15 Rules Queries scary(v) :- villain(v), "Head" of the rule kills_people(v). scary(v) :- villain(v), power(v,_).
16 Who is scary? (in-class)
17 Math in Prolog
18 Arithmetic in Prolog heists(joker, 97). heists(penguin, 18). heists(catwoman, 31). heists(scarecrow, 42). combined_heists(x, Y, Total) :- heists(x,xn), heists(y,yn), Total = XN + YN.
19 ?- combined_heists(catwoman, scarecrow, T). T =
20 Using "is" operator combined_heists(x, Y, Total) :- heists(x,xn), heists(y,yn), Total is XN + YN....?- combined_heists(catwoman, scarecrow, T). T = 73.
21 The Cut Operator "Learn Prolog Now" section 10.2
22 The Cut Operator Motivation: Prolog may needlessly backtrack We wish to stop the backtracking to optimize our code.
23 max example (no cuts) max(x,y,y):- X =< Y. max(x,y,x):- X > Y.
24 Using max?- max(2,3,m). M = 3 ; false. Why continue the search??- max(2,1,m). M = 2 ; false.
25 Two types of cuts (!) A green cut improves performance or memory usage Does not alter results A red cut controls resolution to prevent future matches changes the results is considered "bad form"
26 max example (no cuts) max(x,y,y):- X =< Y. max(x,y,x):- X > Y. If true, no need to keep searching
27 max example, with green cut max(x,y,y):- X =< Y,!. max(x,y,x):- X > Y.
28 Red Cut Example Batman is enemies with all villains, unless the villain is also a romantic interest.
29 Red Cut Example enemy(batman, X) :- romantic_interest(x),!, fail. No backtracking once we make it here. enemy(batman, X) :- villain(x).
30 Red Cut Example bad_breakup(batman, talia). bad_breakup(batman, poison_ivy). enemy(batman, X) :- romantic_interest(x),!, bad_breakup(batman, X). enemy(batman, X) :- villain(x).
31 Avoiding red cut bad_breakup(batman, talia). bad_breakup(batman, poison_ivy). enemy(batman, X) :- villain(x), \+ romantic_interest(x). enemy(batman, X) :- villain(x), bad_breakup(batman,x).
32 Lab For the rest of the class, continue with the lab from last class.
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