Inventory Control with Convex Costs

Transcription

1 Inventory Control with Convex Costs Jian Yang and Gang Yu Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering New Jersey Institute of Technology Newark, NJ Department of Management Science and Information Systems The University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX December 2000 Abstract For an infinite-horizon stochastic inventory control problem, we find that an optimal generalized base stock policy exists when the ordering and holdingbacklogging costs are both convex and an optimal generalized base stock policy exists when the ordering cost is further piecewise-linear. Keywords: Inventory Control, Markov Decision Process This author is supported, in part, by New Jersey Institute of Technology under Grant No

2 1 Introduction The inventory control problem is concerned with the control of order sizes with the purpose of meeting demands with the minimum total cost within a certain time frame. In most cases, costs in a certain period which affect the decisions include: ordering cost as a function of the order size in that period, inventory holding cost as a function of the inventory level carried over through that period, backlogging cost as a function of the negative inventory level carried through that period, and penalty incurred per unsatisfied demand in that period. In this paper, we study a stationary infinite-horizon stochastic inventory control problem with full backlogging under convex ordering and convex holding-backlogging costs. There is a tremendous amount of literature on stochastic and dynamic inventory control [1] [6]. When the ordering cost is convex and all other costs are linear, Karlin [5] showed the optimal policy to be a generalized base stock policy. That is, there exists a nonnegative function y(x) with 0 dy 1 such that, in any period, dx if the starting inventory level is x, order so that the inventory level is brought to max{x, y(x)}. This policy is better illustrated in terms of order size versus starting inventory level. In that term, the above policy states: There exists a nonnegative function y(x) with 1 dy dx 0 and lim x y(x) = 0 such that when the starting inventory level is x in any period, let the order size be y(x). Figures 1 and 2 depict the policy in terms of order up-to level versus starting inventory level and in terms of order size versus starting inventory level, respectively. *** Figure 1 is about here. *** *** Figure 2 is about here. *** For the single-period problem, when the ordering cost is further piecewise-linear, the optimal policy was shown to be a finite generalized base stock policy [4][6]. In terms of order size versus starting inventory level, the policy is as follows: If the ordering cost constitutes L pieces, then y(x) consists of 2L pieces in which pieces with rates 0 and -1 appear intermittently. In addition, ranges for the pieces with rate -1 are exactly the pieces between two consecutive kinks in the ordering cost function. Besides Karlin s work [4], Sobel [8] used a two-piece linear convex order cost function to model the proportional changes in the ordering cost brought by the order-level 2

3 deviation from a prescribed constant. With the assumption of full backlogging and convex holding-backlogging cost, Sobel concluded that the optimal policy is a twobase-stock generalized base stock policy. Figures 3 and 4 depict the finite generalized base stock policy in terms of order up-to level versus starting inventory level and in terms of order size versus starting inventory level. *** Figure 3 is about here. *** *** Figure 4 is about here. *** Although it might have been a folklore that the above results extend to the infinitehorizon cases under general convex and general piecewise-linear convex ordering costs, we have not seen a rigorous proof for it. In this paper, we attempt to fill this gap. Our approach differs from most work in stochastic inventory control in that we consider all quantities as discrete numbers. By taking limits and making ordinary smoothness assumptions, the results can be translated back into the continuous setting straightforwardly. Our major findings are as follows: When the stationary ordering cost is convex and the stationary holding-backlogging cost is convex, the optimal policy is a generalized base stock policy. When the stationary ordering cost is piecewise-linear convex and the stationary holding-backlogging cost is convex, the optimal policy is a finite generalized base stock policy. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: In Section 2, we introduce the problem formulation and the value iteration solution approach for the problem. In Section 3, we study the problem under general stationary convex ordering and convex holding-backlogging costs. In Section 4, we show the form of one optimal policy for the problem with the further assumption that the stationary ordering cost is piecewiselinear. We conclude the paper in Section 5. 2 Formulation and Convergence of Value Iteration Let us assume that the numbers of demands coming in various periods are i.i.d. nonnegative random variables with a random distribution {P d, d Z + }, such that P d 3

4 is the probability of d new orders coming in a period. Let α (0, 1) be the constant discount factor per period. Assume also that the stationary ordering cost function is a nonnegative convex function V ( ) with V (0) = 0. Finally, let nonnegative convex function C( ) with C(0) = 0 be the stationary holding-backlogging cost. That is, C(i) is the holding cost for carrying i items over one period when i > 0 and C(i) is the backlogging cost for carrying i unsatisfied items over one period when i < 0. The state in each period is the starting inventory level j. An ordering policy X {x(t), t Z + } with x(t) {x j (t), j Z} for any t Z + and x j (t) Z + for any j and t determines the size x j (t) of the order to be placed in any period t when the firm is in any state j. Under a given policy X, the system evolves as a Markov chain. The transition matrix at t, P t (x(t)), satisfies Pjj t (x P j+xj (t) j j(t)) = if j + x j(t) j 0 0 otherwise since it takes the demand of size j + x j (t) j in period t to change the inventory level from j in period t to j in period t + 1. Let zj be the minimum average discounted total cost incurred from period 0 to the infinite future when the state in the period is j. From Blackwell [2], we know that z = {z j, j Z} is a solution to the equations z j = min x j Z + {V (x j ) + P d [C(j + x j d) + αzj+x j d]} d=0 for all j s and there exists an optimal stationary policy x (t) = x {x j, j Z}. j, Define f(x, z) {f j (x j, z), j Z} to be a functional which satisfies that, for any Also, let Then, z satisfies and x satisfies f j (x j, z) = V (x j ) + P d [C(j + x j d) + αz j+xj d]. d=0 f (z) = min x Z + z = f (z ) = min x Z + f(x, z). f(x, z ) x = argmin x Z + f(x, z ). 4 (1)

5 According to Denardo [3], f ( ) is a contraction mapping. Thus, the mapping has a unique fixed point as our solution value z. And, we can use the value iteration method [7] to achieve the optimal solution z : 1) Pick an arbitrary z 0 ; 2) For every t 0, let z t+1 = f (z t ). Then, lim t z t = z. Our ensuing derivations hinge on the convergence of the value iteration method and that x solves the minimization problem for f(x, z ). 3 Under General Convex Ordering Costs The convexity of V ( ) and C( ) directly leads to the positive correlation between the starting inventory level and the inventory level right after ordering. That is, given x j, there is x j+1, such that j x j+1 j + x j, as in Theorem 1: Theorem 1 For any j, we must have some x j+1 which satisfies x j+1 x j 1. Proof: We need only to prove that for any x x j, f j+1 (x 1, z ) f j+1 (x j 1). Actually, for any such x, we have f j (x, z ) f j (x j, z ) due to the optimality of x j for f j (, z ). Furthermore, we have f j+1 (x 1, z ) f j (x, z ) = V (x 1) V (x) and f j+1 (x j 1, z ) f j (x j, z ) = V (x j 1) V (x j). But since V ( ) is convex, we get f j+1 (x 1, z ) f j+1 (x j 1, z ) f j (x, z ) f j (x j, z ) 0. The convexity of V ( ) and C( ) also leads to the convexity of zj j. That is, in our terms, z is convex in j. as a function of 5

6 Theorem 2 z is convex in j. Proof: We first prove the property that, if some z is convex in j, then for any j and nonnegative x 1 and x 2, there exist nonnegative x m and x M which satisfy G j (x 1, x 2, x m, x M, z) f j+1 (x 2, z) + f j 1 (x 1, z) f j (x m, z) f j (x M, z) 0. When x 2 x 1 + 1, we let x m be x 1 and x M be x 2. Otherwise, when x 2 x 1 + 2, if x 1 + x 2 is odd, we let x m be (x 1 + x 2 1)/2 and x M be (x 1 + x 2 + 1)/2; otherwise, we let both x m and x M be (x 1 + x 2 )/2. Note that, we always have x m + x M = x 1 + x 2, and when x 2 x 1 + 2, it is true that x x m x M x 2 1. Hence, when x 2 x 1 + 1, we have G j (x 1, x 2, x 1, x 2, z) = P d [C(j+x 2 d+1)+c(j+x 1 d 1) C(j+x 2 d) C(j+x 1 d) d=0 +α(z j+x2 d+1 + z j+x1 d 1 z j+x2 d z j+x1 d)]. The convexity of C( ) leads to the nonnegativity of the above term. When x 2 x 1 +2, we have G j (x 1, x 2, x m, x M, z) = V (x 2 ) + V (x 1 ) V (x M ) V (x m ) + P d [C(j + x 2 d + 1) + C(j + x 1 d 1) C(j + x M d) C(j + x m d) d=0 +α(z j x2 +d+1 + z j x1 +d 1 z j xm +d z j xm+d)]. The convexity of V ( ) and C( ) leads to the nonnegativity of the above term. Thus, the property is proved. Now, we proceed with induction. Let an arbitrary z 0 be convex in j. For any nonnegative t, let z t+1 = f (z t ). Suppose for a given nonnegative t, z t is convex in j. Now, we try to prove that z t+1 is convex in j as well. To this end, let x t be such that x t = argmin x Z + f(x, z t ). Then, from the convexity of z t in j and the property just proved, we know the existence of some nonnegative x m and x M which leads to f j+1 (x t j+1, z t ) + f j 1 (x t j 1, z t ) f j (x m, z t ) f j (x M, z t ) 0. 6

7 But, by definition, we have for any j and nonnegative x that Therefore, for any j, z t+1 j f j(x m, z t ) + f j (x M, z t ) 2 z t+1 j f j (x, z t ). f j 1(x t j 1, z t ) + f j+1 (x t j+1, z t ) 2 = zt+1 j 1 + zj+1 t+1. 2 Thus, z t+1 is convex in j. From the convergence of z t to z, we know that z is convex in j. Furthermore, the convexity of V ( ) and C( ) and the convexity of z in j allow some x j+1 to be no larger than x j. Theorem 3 For any j, given x j, we can find some x j+1 which is no larger than x j. Proof: We first show that, for any j, f j (x, z ) is a convex function of x. That is because for any positive x, we have f j (x + 1, z ) + f j (x 1, z ) 2f j (x, z ) = V (x + 1) + V (x 1) 2V (x) + P d [C(j + x d + 1) + C(j + x d 1) 2C(j + x d) d=0 +α(zj+x d+1 + zj+x d 1 2zj+x d)] 0 due to the convexity of V ( ) and C( ) and the convexity of z in j. Then, we prove the property that, for any nonnegative x, f j (x, z ) f j (x + 1, z ) implies f j+1 (x, z ) f j+1 (x + 1, z ). To this end, we have f j+1 (x + 1, z ) f j+1 (x, z ) f j (x + 1, z ) + f j (x, z ) = P d [C(j + x d + 2) + C(j + x d) 2C(j + x d + 1) d=0 +α(zj+x d+2 + zj+x d 2zj+x d+1)] 0 due to the convexity of C( ) and the convexity of z in j. Now, due to the optimality of x j for f j (, z ) and the convexity of f j (, z ), we have f j (x j, z ) f j (x j + 1, z ) f j (x j + 2, z ). 7

8 By the property just proved, we also have f j+1 (x j, z ) f j+1 (x j + 1, z ) f j+1 (x j + 2, z ). Therefore, for every j, we may always have some x j+1 which is no larger than x j. So, when the stationary ordering and holding-backlogging costs are convex, z is convex in j and there is an x satisfying x j+1 = x j 1 or x j for any j. Taking the limit to the continuous case, the policy is a generalized base stock policy. 4 Under Piecewise-Linear Convex Ordering Costs Here, we further assume that V ( ) is piecewise-linear whose kinks occur at X 0,..., X L with 0 X 0 < X 1 < < X L 1 < X L. For l = 1,..., L, the marginal ordering cost for order sizes between X l 1 and X l is assumed to be F l, with 0 F 1 < < F L. Therefore, for l = 1,..., L and X l 1 x X l 1, we have l 1 V (x) = F l x + (F l F l +1)X l. Figure 5 illustrates this piecewise-linear convex ordering cost function. l =1 *** Figure 5 is about here. *** We may perceive that, whenever x j becomes as small as X l 1 as j increases, it is possible to have x j+1 = x j 1. Theorem 4 confirms this. Theorem 4 For any j, l = 1,..., L, when X l x j X l 1, we can find some x j+1 to be x j 1. Proof: Since x j+1 may be either x j or x j 1, we need only to prove that f j+1 (x j 1, z ) f j+1 (x j, z ). For X l 1 x X l 1, it is true that V (x + 1) V (x) = F l. Hence, we have f j+1 (x j, z ) f j+1 (x j 1, z ) f j (x j + 1, z ) + f j (x j, z ) 8

9 = 2V (x j) V (x j 1) V (x j + 1) = 0. Since we also have f j (x j, z ) f j (x j + 1, z ), the theorem is proved. Note that, when X l x j X l and x j+1 = x j 1, we have zj+1 = zj F l. The above results lead to the existence of an optimal policy x of the following 2L-piece linear nonincreasing zigzag form: There is some K {K 0, K 1,..., K L 1 } with K 1,..., K L 1 all being nonnegative, such that x K 0 l 1 l j = =1 K l j for l = 1,..., L 1, and X l x j = 0 for j K 0, K 0 l 1 l =1 K l X l j K 0 l 1 l =1 K l X l 1 1 K 0 l l =1 K l X l j K 0 l 1 l =1 K l X l 1 (2) x j = K 0 L 1 l =1 K l j for j K 0 L 1 l =1 K l X L 1 1. The optimal solution value z is convex over j. In addition, for l = 1,..., L, K 0 l 1 l =1 K l X l j K 0 l 1 l =1 K l X l 1 1, we have z j+1 = z j F l. When taking the limit to the continuous case, the above policy is exactly the finite generalized base stock policy. 5 Conclusion In this paper, we have reached the forms of the optimal policies for the stochastic infinite-horizon inventory control problem with convex ordering and holdingbacklogging costs. Our work is an extension to the work by S. Karlin and M.J. Sobel on convex-cost stochastic inventory control problems. In the derivation, we have used more convenient representations for the generalized base stock policy and the finite generalized base stock policy. Moreover, our discrete-quantity approach appears to be efficient. 9

10 References [1] Arrow, K., S. Karlin, and H. Scarf (1958), Studies in the Mathematical Theory of Inventory and Production, Stanford University Press, Stanford, California. [2] Blackwell, D. (1962), Discrete Dynamic Programming, Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 35, pp [3] Denardo, E.V. (1967), Contraction Mappings in the Theory Underlying Dynamic Programming, SIAM Review, 9, pp [4] Karlin, S. (1958), One-Stage Inventory Models with Uncertainty, in K. Arrow, S. Karlin, and H. Scarf (Eds.), Studies in the Mathematical Theory of Inventory and Production, Stanford University Press, Stanford, California. [5] Karlin, S. (1958), Optimal Inventory Policy for the Arrow-Harris-Marschak Dynamic Model, in K. Arrow, S. Karlin, and H. Scarf (Eds.), Studies in the Mathematical Theory of Inventory and Production, Stanford University Press, Stanford, California. [6] Porteus, E.L. (1990), Stochastic Inventory Theory, in D.P. Heyman and M.J. Sobel (Eds.), Handbooks in Operations Research and Management Science, Volume 2: Stochastic Models, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., North-Holland, pp [7] Puterman, M.L. (1990), Markov Decision Processes, in D.P. Heyman and M.J. Sobel (Eds.), Handbooks in Operations Research and Management Science, Volume 2: Stochastic Models, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., North-Holland, pp [8] Sobel, M.J. (1970), Making Short-Run Changes in Production When the Employment Level is Fixed, Management Science, 18, pp

11 Order Up-To Level 0 Starting Inventory Level Figure 1: Generalized Base Stock Policy Representation I

12 Order Size 0 Starting Inventory Level Figure 2: Generalized Base Stock Policy Representation II

13 Order Up-To Level K 0 -K 1 -K 2 -X 2 0 K 0 -K 1 -X 2 K 0 -K 1 -X 1 K 0 -X 1 K 0 Starting Inventory Level Figure 3: Finite Generalized Base Stock Policy Representation I

14 Order Size X 2 X 1 0 K 0 -K 1 -K 2 -X 2 K 0 -K 1 -X 2 K 0 -K 1 -X 1 K 0 -X 1 K 0 Starting Inventory Level Figure 4: Finite Generalized Base Stock Policy Representation II

15 Ordering Cost F 2 X 2 +(F 1 -F 2 )X 1 F 1 X 1 0 X 1 X 2 Order Size Figure 5: Piecewise-Linear Convex Ordering Cost