José Luis González Villanueva

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1 THÈSE Pour l obtention du grade de DOCTEUR D AIX-MARSEILLE UNIVERSITÉ ÉCOLE DOCTORALE EN MATHÉMATIQUES ET INFORMATIQUE DE MARSEILLE SPÉCIALITÉ : MATHÉMATIQUES Présentée par José Luis González Villanueva Déviation des Moyennes Ergodiques Directeur de thèse : M. Pascal HUBERT Co-direction : M. Xavier Bressaud Soutenue le 04 julliet 204 Devant la Commission d Examen JURY M. Xavier Bressaud Professeur, Université Paul Sabatier Codirecteur M. Fabien Durand Professeur, Université de Picardie Examinateur M. Pascal Hubert Professeur, Université d Aix-Marseille Directeur Mme. Isabelle Liousse Maître de Conférences, Université de Lille Examinatrice Mme. Corinna Ulcigrai Reader, Université de Bristol Rapportrice M. Luca Zamboni Professeur, Université de Lyon Rapporteur

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7 Table des matières Introduction générale I Substitution dynamical systems 9 Preliminary definitions of substitutions Abelianization Primitivity and symbolic dynamical system Perron-Frobenius Theorem Desubstitution and prefix-suffix automaton Substitutions with eigenvalues of modulus larger than one Broken line and limit function Hausdorff dimension a-minimal letters and minimal points Sub-automaton of minimal letters Dominant letters Some results of dominant substitutions II Interval exchange transformations 39 Preliminary definitions Rauzy-Veech induction Keane condition Rauzy classes Rauzy-Veech renormalization Associated substitution Affine interval exchange transformation Self-similar interval exchange transformation iii

8 Table des matières 6 Some important results about conjugacy of IET III A result of conjugacy between AIET and IET 55 An important example A path in Rauzy class Minimal and dominant letters Conjugacy Main theorem Conclusion générale et perspectives 79 Table des figures 8 Références bibliographiques 83 iv

9 Introduction générale Depuis la naissance de l hypothèse ergodique, formulée initialement par Ludwig Boltzmann à partir de la théorie cinétique des gaz et de la physique statistique, de nombreux auteurs se sont intéressés par l étude de moyennes ergodiques (ou moyennes de Birkhoff). C est ainsi que naquit quelques résultats classiques tels que le théorème ergodique de Birkhoff et le théorème ergodique de von Neumann. L objet d étude du travail présenté ici tourne principalement autour de moyennes ergodiques de systèmes substitutifs, plus précisément, la ligne brisée d un point dans le système symbolique, déjà étudiée par [, 2, 6, 7,, 2]. La contribution la plus importante de ce travail est associée à un résultat de conjugaison entre échange d intervalles et échange d intervalles affines. Cette thèse est divisée principalement, en deux parties. Dans la première partie, nous nous intéressons aux systèmes symboliques générés par une substitution, appelés systèmes substitutifs. Particulièrement, les systèmes liés à une substitution avec une matrice d incidence avec deux valeurs propres réels de module supérieur à. Nous donnons des conditions sur la substitutions de manière que une somme ergodique associée à la deuxième plus grande valeur propre soit divergente pour une classe de points du système. Un point dans cette classe est directement liée avec les points minimaux de sa ligne brisée. Nous démontrons qu il existe un automate qui détermine les point minimaux d une ligne brisée. Dans la deuxième partie, nous nous concentrons sur les systèmes quasipériodiques, précisément l échange d intervalles. À l aide de [4, 5, 0, 9, 22, 23, 25, 26] avec la première partie, Nous démontrons un résultat de conjugaison pour une quantité infinie déchange d intervalles dans le cas périodique des chemins dans le diagramme Rauzy.

10 Introduction générale 2 Préliminaires. Avant de donner un plan détaillé, nous donnons les principales définitions de ce travail pour permettre une meilleur comprésion des résultats obtenues ici. Systèmes dynamiques substitutifs. Soit A un ensemble fini. On l appelle alphabet et ses élements des symboles. Un mot est une suite finie de symboles de A, w = w 0... w l. La longueur de w est notée w = l. Le mot vide est noté ε. L ensemble de tous les mots est noté A et A + = A \{ε}. L ensemble des suites infinies x = (x i ) i N dans A est noté A N. De façon analogue, A Z est l ensemble des suites bi-infinies. Etant donnée une suite x A +, A N, A Z, on note x[i, j] le sous-mot de x apparaissant entre les indices i et j. Le décalage S : A Z A Z est donné par S(x) = (x i+ ) Z. Un sous-shift est un sous-ensemble fermé de A Z invariant pour le décalage. Un sous-shift est minimal si toutes les orbites pour le décalage sont denses. Une substitution est une fonction σ : A A +. On prolonge la substitution à A Z naturellement. Soit M σ la matrice d incidence de σ définie par M σ (a, b) = σ(b) a pour tous a, b A, où w b est le nombre de fois que b apparaît dans w A +. On dit que une substitution est primitive s il existe N > 0 telle que pour chaque a A, σ N (a) contient toutes les lettres de A. Soit X σ A Z le sous-shift défini par σ, c est-à-dire que x X σ si et seulement si tout sous-mot de x est un sous-mot de σ N (a), pour un N N et a A. Si on considère σ primitive. By [9], étant donné un point x X σ il existe une unique suite (p i, c i, s i ) i N (A A A ) N telle que pour chaque i N : σ(c i+ ) = p i c i s i et... σ 3 (p 3 )σ 2 (p 2 )σ (p )p 0.c 0 s 0 σ (s )σ 2 (s 2 )σ 3 (s 3 )... c est la partie centrale de x, quand il y a une quantité infinie de s i et p i non vides. Cette suite s appelle décomposition préfixe-suffixe de x. Soit σ une substitution primitive. Considérons le système dynamique (X σ, S) où S est le décalage pour le sous-shift X σ. Soit f : X σ R une fonction et x X σ. Pour n N on définit la n ème somme ergodique, S n f(x) = n k=0 f(t k (x)). Considérant σ primitive sur A et γ : A C une fonction. La ligne brisée associée à un point x X σ est une courbe affine par morceaux dans R C avec des sommets (n, γ(x 0 ) + + γ(x n )) n N et ( n, γ(x n ) γ(x )) n. Soit x X σ. On définit γ 0 (x) = 0, γ n (x) = n k=0 γ(x k) pour n > 0 et γ n (x) = k=n γ(x k) pour n < 0. On dit que x est un point minimal si γ n (x) > 0 pour

11 Introduction générale chaque n Z. Transformation d échange d intervalles. Soit 0 = a 0, a < < a r < a r = une partition de l intervalle [0, ). Un échange d intervalles affine (AIET) est une bijection f : [0, ) [0, ) de la forme f(t) = w i t+v i si t [a i, a i ), avec i {,..., r}. Le vecteur w = (w,..., w r ) est appelé la pente de f. On suppose que la pente est strictement positive et on note log(w) = (log(w ),..., log(w r )) le vecteur de logarithme de pentes. Un échange d intervalles (IET) est un AIET avec pente w = (,..., ). Habituellement une IET est donné pour un vecteur λ = (λ,..., λ r ) telle que λ i = a i a i, i {,..., r} et une permutation π de {,..., r}. Clairement, a i = i j= λ j. On note T (λ,π) l échange d intervalles associé à λ et π. Un échange d intervalles satisfait la condition de Keane [4, 5] si chaque orbite peu être prolongé infiniment dans le future sans toucher les points extrêmes a i, des intervalles. Keane a montré que ces systèmes sont minimaux. D après les travaux de Rauzy et Veech [22, 23], on définit l induction de Rauzy pour un IET T (λ,π), satisfaisant la condition de Keane, à la transformation de premiere retour ˆR(T (λ,π)) de T (λ,π) sur une suite décroissante d intervalles I n, avec le même extrême gauche que I = [0, ). Ces transformations aussi sont des échange d intervalles mais avec des données différentes, c est a dire ˆR(T (λ,π)) = T (λ,π ). L ensemble de toutes les possibles données (λ, π ) pour une donnée initial (λ, π), est une classe de Rauzy. À chaque classe de Rauzy est associé un graphe appelé diagramme de Rauzy, dont les sommets sont les éléments de la classe de Rauzy et les arrêtes sont les transitions possibles. À chaque arrête e du diagramme de Rauzy on associe une substitution σ e, donc un chemin ε dans le diagramme de Rauzy a associé une substitution σ ε. Un IET T (λ,π) est auto-similaire s il existe une boucle dans le diagramme de Rauzy et une matrice de Perron-Frobenius R associée telle que, θ λ = Rλ où θ est la valeur propre dominante de R. On dit que l AIET f est semi-conjugué à l IET T (λ,π) s il existe une fonction continue h : [0, ) [0, ) telle que h f = T (λ,π) h. Soit N R un intervalle fini. Soit g : N N une fonction continue par morceaux et J N. On dit que J est errant si les J, g(j), g 2 (J)... sont disjoint et l ensemble w-limite de J est infini. 3

12 Introduction générale Plan détaillé et contributions. Le chapitre I traite l étude de la ligne brisée. Nous considérons des substitution primitives telles que R σ = t M σ possède deux valeurs propres réels plus grandes que et non conjuguées algébriquement, θ > θ 2 >, où θ est la valeur propre de Perron-Frobenius. Nous montrons qu il existe une infinité de substitutions avec ces conditions. Pour une substitution ayant les conditions décrites on cosidère v 2 = (γ,..., γ A ) une vecteur propre associée à θ 2 et on définit la fonction, γ(a i ) = γ i for a i A, 4 prolongée naturellement à A + et A Z. Géométriquement, cette fonction on peut la voir la projection de l abéliannisé dans le plain formé par v et v 2, avec v une vecteur propre associée à θ. Cette fonction a été étudié par Bressaud, Hubert et Maass [5] et par Bressaud, Bufetov et Hubert [4] avec des autres conditions sur les valeurs propres. Dans [5] les valeurs propres θ et θ 2 sont conjuguées et dans [4] il y a une valeur propre de module. La ligne brisée associée à cette fonction est directement liée avec les fractal de Rauzy et les courbes fractales étudiée par Dumont et Thomas [2], []. Nous donnons une interprétation géométrique de la ligne brisée de mots de la forme σ n (w) pour w A + et n N. Nous définissons la fonction limite d un mot w comme la limite des lignes brisées normalisées, dénotée par C w. Pour l étude des points minimaux de C w, on donne des nouvelles définitions des lettres a-minimales, minimales, dominantes. Avec cela, on peut définir le sousautomate des lettres minimales, dont l ensemble des étiquette est dénoté par P M σ. En définissant la classe de substitutions dominantes et strictement dominantes on obtiendra les résultats suivants : Théorème. Soit σ : A A + une substitution primitive dominante stricte sur l alphabet A. Soit a 0 une lettre minimal dans σ n (a) avec a A et n N. Alors, il existe une séquence {(p i, a i, s i )} n i=0 (P M σ ) n telle que pour chaque i {,..., n }, a i est dominante dans σ(a i+ ). Proposition. Soit σ : A A + une substitution primitive dominante sur l alphabet A. Supposons que a 0 A est une lettre dominante dans σ(a) avec a A, telle que σ(a 0 ) a au moins deux lettres dominantes, qui sont aussi dominantes. S il existe un cycle dans G σ contenant a 0, alors X σ a un point minimal x tel qu il y a (n k ) k N N avec : γ(x 0... x nk ) = 0 or γ(x nk... x ) = 0

13 Introduction générale Proposition 2. Soit σ : A A + une substitution primitive dominante sur l alphabet A. Soit x X σ un point minimal avec {(p i, c i, s i )} i N son développement en préfixessuffixes donné par [9]. Supposons que a 0 V σ est une lettre dominante, telle que σ(a 0 ) a au moins deux lettres dominantes, qui sont aussi dominantes. S il existe (i j ) j N telle que c ij = a 0 alors il y a (n k ) k N N avec : γ(x 0... x nk ) = 0 or γ(x nk... x ) = 0 Convient de noter que si on n a pas les conditions sur les valeurs propres décrites antérieurement, d après [5] les valeurs propres θ et θ 2 sont conjuguées, donc la fonction limite a seulement un point minimal. Les chapitres II et III abordent les échanges d intervalles, plus précisément la question si un échange d intervalles affine est semi-comjugué à un IET. Et quand cette semi-conjugaison et une conjugaison car on sait que un AIET peut avoir des intervalles errants. Des questions de ce type ont été largement étudiés, par exemple (dans le cas de deux intervalles) Poincaré a montré que tout homéomorphisme du cercle qui préserve l orientation (avec des orbites non périodiques) est semi-conjugué à une rotation irrationnelle. Plus tard, Denjoy construisit des exemples de difféomorphismes avec des intervalles errants. Aussi il a prouvé que les C 2 difféomorphismes avec des orbites non périodiques sont conjugues à une rotation du cercle. Le même resulta a été prouvé par Herman pour les homéomorphismes affines par morceaux. Plus tard Levitt [6] a trouvé un exemple d un AIET non-uniquement ergodique avec des intervalles errants. Camelier et Gutierrez [8] ont exposé un AIET uniquement ergodique avec des intervalles errants, qui est semi-conjugué à un IET auto-similaire. Liousse et Marzougui [7] ont étudié la C 2 -conjugaison d un AIET. Récemment, Bressaud, Hubert et Maass [5] ont généralisé l exemple de Camelier et Gutierrez pour une grande classe de chemins périodiques (des IET auto-similaires) dans le diagramme de Rauzy. Théorème ([5]). Soit T (λ,π) une transformation d échange d intervalles auto-similaire et R la matrice associée obtenue par induction de Rauzy. Soit θ la valeur propre de Perron-Frobenius de R. On suppose que R a une valeur propre θ 2 telle que () θ 2 est un conjugué de θ, (2) θ 2 R, (3) < θ 2 (< θ ) Alors, il existe une transformation d échange d intervalles affine f avec des intervalles 5

14 Introduction générale 6 errants qui est semi-conjuguée à T (λ,π). Peu après, Marmi, Moussa et Yoccoz [9], à l aide des exposants de Lyapunov du cocycle de Kontsevich-Zorich [3, 3, 8], on trouvé une conclusion similaire pour presque tout AIET. En considérant θ > θ 2 > > θ g les exposants de Lyapunov et E g E sa filtration filtration correspondant, ils ont prouvé : Théorème ([9]). Pour presque tout échange d intervalle T (λ,π) avec des données (λ, π), ce qui suit est : les cordonnées de toute vecteur dans E \ E 2 peut être réalisé en tant que logarithmes des pentes d un échange d intervalles affine semi-conjugué à T (λ,π) avec des intervalles errants. Ultérieurement, Bressaud, Bufetov et Hubert [4] ont prouvé que la limite inférieure d une somme ergodique est bornée dans un système substitutif en module. En conséquence de cela, si un AIET semi-conjugué à un IET auto-similaire, ils ont prouvé que si le vecteur de logarithmes de pentes appartient à l espace unitaire de t R, alors l AIET est aussi conjugué, où t R est la matrice de l induction de Rauzy de l IET. Proposition ([4]). Soit T 0 = T (λ,π) un échange d intervalles auto-similaire et R la matrice associée à l induction de Rauzy induction. On suppose que R a une valeur propre θ de module Si θ =, soit Γ un vecteur propre associé à θ par t R Si θ = e iφ appartient à C \ R, soit V φ (resp. V φ ) un vecteur propre associé à θ (resp. à e iφ ) par t R. Soit Γ un vecteur avec des cordonnées réels qui appartient à l espace engendré par V φ et V φ Si un échange d intervalles affine avec vecteur de logarithmes de pentes Γ est semiconjugué à T 0 alors il est aussi topologiquement conjugué à T 0. Corollaire ([4]). Il existe un nombre infini des échange d intervalles auto-similaires T (λ,π) avec r 4 intervalles tel que, chaque échange d intervalles affine qui est semiconjugué à T (λ,π), est aussi conjugué T (λ,π). Nous avons un résultat d une nature similaire. Nous avons trouvé un boucle dans le diagramme de Rauzy de cinq intervalles, tel que la matrice correspondante á deux valeurs propes θ > θ 2 > non conjuguées. En plus, si x est un point minimal du système substitutif associé, alor sa fonction normalisée a un nombre infini des point minimaux. À ce boucle en particulier, est associé un IET T (λ,π). Nous prouvons que si un AIET f est semi-conjugué à T (λ,π) et le vecteur de logarithmes de pentes est un vecteur propre de θ 2, alors f est aussi conjugué.

15 Introduction générale Nous avons trouvé un nombre infini de ces IET : Théorème 2. Il existe un nombre infini des échange d intervalles auto-similaires T (λ,π) en cinq intervalles tels que, chaque échange d intervalles affine qui est semiconjugué à T (λ,π), dont son vecteur de logarithmes de pentes est un vecteur propre de θ 2, alors il est aussi conjugué. 7

16 Table des matières 8

17 Chapitre I Substitution dynamical systems Preliminary definitions of substitutions. Let A be a finite set that shall be called alphabet. The elements of A will be called letters or symbols. A word is a finite string of elements in A. If w = w... w l, l is called the length of w and denoted by w. We denote by w a the number of occurrences of a letter a A appearing in a word w A The set of finite words in the alphabet A is denoted A. We also define the dotted words w = w m... w.w 0... w l where l, m N. The concatenation of two words v = v... v n, u = u... u m A is the word vu = v... v n u... u m. This operation is associative and has a unit element, the empty word, denoted by ε. The set A with the concatenation has the structure of a monoid. The set A + = A \ {ε} is endowed with the structure of a semi-group. The set of one-sided infinite sequences x = (x i ) i N in A is denoted by A N. Analogously, A Z is the set of two-sided infinite sequences x = (x i ) i Z. It is also denoted by x =... x 2 x.x 0 x x 2... Let S be the shift map defined on A Z (or A N ) by S((x i ) i Z ) = (x i+ ) i Z Definition.. A substitution σ is a map from an alphabet A into A +. It extends to a morphism of A by concatenation. It also extends naturally to a map defined over A N or A Z. A sequence u A Z is a periodic point for σ, if σ k (u) = u for some k N {0}. If u is such that σ(u) = u, we will say that u is a fixed point of σ. A substitution σ is S-periodic if there is a periodic point for σ that is also a periodic point for S. 9

18 Chapitre I. Substitution dynamical systems Definition.2. The language L(w) of a doubly infinite word w A Z is the set of finite words which appear in w. The symbolic dynamical system generated by a word u A Z is the pair (Ω(u), S) with Ω(u) = {w A Z, L(w) L(u)}. We have that Ω(u) is the closure in A Z of the orbit of u by S, and that Ω(u) is finite if and only if u is S-periodic. This set is a compact subset in A Z, and S is an homeomorphism on Ω(u).. Abelianization. Definition.3. Let σ be a substitution defined over the alphabet A = {a,..., a d }. The incidence matrix σ is defined by M σ = (m ij ) i,j whose entry m ij is σ(a j ) ai, that is, the number of occurrences of a i in σ(a j ). Example.. Let σ, σ 2 be the Fibonacci and Tribonacci substitutions defined by σ : 2, 2 and σ 2 : 2, 2 3, 3. Then their incidence matrices are M σ =, M σ2 = Definition.4. A substitution is said to be unimodular if the determinant of its incidence matrix is ±. The Fibonacci and Tribonacci substitutions are unimodular. Definition.5. Let σ be a substitution defined over the alphabet A = {a,..., a d }. Let l : A Z d denote the canonical homomorphism, also called homomorphism of abelianization, defined as follows : w A, l(w) = t ( w ai ) i d. (I.) Remark.. As a consequence, for a substitution σ on A = {a,..., a d }, its incidence matrix M σ satisfies : M σ = (l(σ(a )),..., l(σ(a d ))). Furthermore, we have that w A, l(σ(w)) = M σ l(w). (I.2) 0

19 I. Preliminary definitions of substitutions..2 Primitivity and symbolic dynamical system. Definition.6. A substitution σ over the alphabet A is primitive if there exists a positive integer k such that, for any a, b A, the letter a occurs in σ k (b). Definition.7. A topological dynamical system is a pair (X, T ) where X is a compact metric space X and T is a continuous map defined onto the set X. Definition.8. A dynamical system (X, T ) is called minimal if X does not contain any non-empty, proper, closed T -invariant subset. Definition.9. Let σ be a primitive substitution and u a periodic point of σ. We define (X σ, S) the symbolic dynamical system generated by σ as, (X σ, S) = (Ω(u), S). The definition of X σ is independent of the choice of periodic point u. If the substitution σ is primitive, by [2], the system (X σ, S) is a minimal dynamical system. In the primitive case, the system (X σ, S) is finite if and only if the substitution is S-periodic..3 Perron-Frobenius Theorem. Theorem I.. Let M be a non-negative irreducible matrix. Then M admits a strictly positive eigenvalue γ which dominates the other eigenvalues γ, that is γ γ. The eigenvalue γ is a simple eigenvalue and there exists an eigenvector with positive entries associated with γ. Furthermore, if M is primitive, then the eigenvalue γ dominates strictly in modulus the other eigenvalues γ : γ > γ Remark.2. We can remark that for any σ substitution, its incidence matrix M σ has a positive eigenvalue λ which dominates the other eigenvalues..4 Desubstitution and prefix-suffix automaton. Let σ be a primitive and non S-periodic substitution defined over a finite alphabet A. Let (X σ, S) be the symbolic dynamical system generated by σ. In [20] B. Mossé shows that for any x X σ there is a unique decomposition x = S k (σ(y)) with y X σ and 0 k < σ(y 0 ).

20 Chapitre I. Substitution dynamical systems Definition.0. Let us define the desubstitution map θ : X σ X σ by θ(x) = y, if y = S k (σ(x)) with 0 k < σ(y 0 ) Let P σ be the finite set of all rests, called prefix-suffix set associated with σ defined by : P σ = {(p, a, s) A A A b A, σ(b) = pas} For x X σ, we denote its decomposition (p, x 0, s) in P σ by the map ξ : X σ P σ, ie. ξ(x) = (p, x 0, s). Definition. ([9]). Let Γ : X σ P N σ be the map which maps a word x X σ to the sequence (ξ(θ i (x))) i 0 defined by Γ(x) = (ξ(θ i (x))) i 0 = (p i, a i, s i ) i 0 The sequence (p i, a i, s i ) i 0 will be called the prefix-suffix expansion of x. then We can remark that if Γ(x) = (p i, a i, s i ) i 0 is the prefix-suffix expansion of x X s a 0 = x 0 i 0, σ(a i+ ) = p i a i s i If an infinite number of prefixes p i and suffixes s i are nonempty, then x = lim i σ i (p i )... σ(p )p 0.a 0 s 0 σ(s )... σ i (s i ). Definition.2 ([9]). Let σ : A A + be a substitution in the alphabet A. The prefix-suffix automaton A σ associated to σ is defined by : The states set is A. The label set is P σ. There is an arrow from a to b labeled by e = (p, a, s) P σ if σ(b) = pas. A consequence of σ primitivity is that this automaton is strongly connected. Definition.3. An element (e i ) i 0 P N σ will be called admissible if it is an infinite sequence recognized by the prefix-suffix automaton. The set of admissible elements D of P N σ is a subshift of finite type of P N σ. That is the set of labels of infinite walks in the automaton. 2

21 PURE DISCRETE SPECTRUM SUBSTITUTIVE DYNAMICAL SYSTE Hence, the prefix-suffix expansion can be considered as an e of the points of X σ in a combinatorial power series. The thr (p i, a i, s i ) play the role of digits in this combinatorial expansion. I.2 Substitutions with eigenvalues of modulus larger than one. Example.2. The Fibonacci and Tribonacci substitutions are Degree of precision of the combinatorial expansion. An E DISCRETE SPECTRUM SUBSTITUTIVE suffix expansion σ F : {, DYNAMICAL is the label 2} {, 2} SYSTEMS of an infinite349 path in the so-called pre automaton of σ, whose set of vertices is the alphabet A and such th 2 ce, the prefix-suffix expansion is edge canlabeled considered by (p, a, s) as anp expansion from a towards b if pas = σ(b). E 2 ints of X σ in a combinatorial are shown in power Figure series... The three-tuples play the role of digits in this combinatorial σ T : {, 2, 3} expansion. {, 2, 3} (ε, 2, 2) ree of precision of the combinatorial expansion. Any prefixansion is the label of an infinite path in the so-called prefix-suffix 2 3 (, 2, ε) n of σ, whose set of vertices is the alphabet A and such that there labeled by (p, a, s) P from a towards b if pas = σ(b). Examples (, 2, ε) in Figure.. (ε,, ε) (ε,, ε) 2 3 Fibonacci substitution 2, 2 (ε,, 2) 2 (ε,, 3) (ε,, 2) 2 (ε,, ε) (, 3, ε) (, 2, ε) 3 Fibonacci Figure I.: substitution Prefix-suffix automaton 2, 2of Tribonacci Figuresubstitution I.2: Prefix-suffix automaton 2, 2 3, of 3 Fibonacci substitution Tribonacci substitution (, 2, ε) (ε,, 2) (ε,, 2) (ε,, 2) 2 (,, 2) 2 (, 2, ε) An important result (ε, from, 3) a work of Canterini-Siegel [9], is the following theorem : (,, 2) (ε,, ε) (, 3, ε) (, 2, ε) Theorem I.2 ([9]). Let σ 3 : A A + be a primitive non-s-periodic 2, substitution 2 and (X σ, S) the dynamical system generated by σ. The map Γ is continuous and onto the subshift of finite type D. This map is one-to-one except on the orbit of periodic Tribonacci substitution 2, 2 3, 3 points of σ. Denote by X P the set of path labels in the prefix-suffix autom (ε,, 2) (ε,, 2) is the support of a subshift of finite type. Any such path is the e 2 Substitutions of a doubly with infinite eigenvalues 2 (, word, 2, ε) since ofthe modulus map E P larger is continuous and o than one. A countable number of doubly infinite words are not characterized (, 2, ε) prefix-suffix expansion: E P is one-to-one except on the orbit deno By the Perron-Frobenius of 2, periodic Theorem 2 points (I.) ofwe σ, know where that to itany is primitive finite-to-one substitution (see the proofs there is associated a positive eigenvalue which dominates the other eigenvalues. [HZ]). Figure In this.. section Prefix-suffix we ask for the automatons. substitutions which have two first eigenvalues with (,, 2) (,, 2) some restrictions. Figure.. Prefix-suffix automatons..5. Formal expansion associated with a substitution ote by X P the set of path labels in the prefix-suffix automaton; it The desubstitution expands a doubly infinite word 3 w A port of a subshift of finite type. Any such path is the expansion Z as of the words σ ly infinite word, since the map E P is n (p continuous n ) σ(p )p and 0 a onto 0 s 0 σ(s X ) σ P. i (s i ). Since a sub

22 Chapitre I. Substitution dynamical systems Definition 2.. Let σ : A A + be a substitution. We define R σ = Mσ t where M σ is the incidence matrix of σ. In the next, we will consider σ : A A + a primitive substitution such that the transpose of their incidence matrix R σ has two simple real eigenvalues θ and θ 2. And we assume that the following hypothesis is true : Hypothesis (AH) : θ > θ 2 >, θ is the Perron-Frobenius eigenvalue, θ and θ 2 are not algebraic conjugated, that is, their minimal polynomials are different. The natural question is : Are there primitive substitutions satisfying the hypothesis (AH)? The following lemmas give an answer to this question for substitution on two letters. Lemma. There are infinitely many matrices M M 2 (N) such that their eigenvalues satisfy the hypothesis (AH). Proof. Let M M 2 (N) such that M = a c b d We know that the characteristic polynomial of M is p(x) = x 2 tr(m)x + det(m) = (x λ )(x λ 2 ) with λ = a + d +, λ 2 = a + d 2 2 where = (a + d) 2 4(ad cb) 2. If we suppose = q 2 for some q N \ {0} the eigenvalues will be not conjugated. In addition, if q < a + d 2 then λ 2 >. Moreover, cb = q2 (a+d) ad, thus if q > a d, we have that cb > 0. Finally, if q 2 = (a + d) 2 mod 4 then cb N \ {0}. For a N \ {0}, d = a there is q N \ {0} with the previous conditions. We can conclude that there are c, d N \ {0} such that cb = q2 (a+d) ad. 4

23 I.2 Substitutions with eigenvalues of modulus larger than one. Lemma 2. There are infinitely many substitutions σ on two letters such that R σ satisfy the hypothesis (AH). The proof is direct. We give the following construction : By the Lemma there is M M 2 (N), with eigenvalues θ, θ 2 >. Let v, v 2 be their eigenvectors. We can suppose v 2 = n, n, m Z(θ 2 ) coprimes, because v m is the Perron-Frobenius eigenvector. We can suppose that M = a b c d with an bm, a m, b n. Then we can to write b = nk b + r b for some k b, r b N and r b < n, this is, the division of b by n in N. Let r a = a mk b and τ : {0, } {0, } be defined as τ(0) = }{{} }.{{.. } }{{}... }{{} n times m times n times m times }{{} k b times }{{} r a times... }{{} r b times (I.3) By analogous way for c, d with cn < dm, we can define τ() as τ() = }{{} r c times... }{{} r d times }{{} }.{{.. } }{{}... }{{} n times m times n times m times }{{} k c times (I.4) where c = mk c + r c for some k c, r c N and r d = d nk c. 2. Broken line and limit function. For a substitution satisfying the hypothesis (AH), we will give the following definitions. Definition 2.2. Let σ be a primitive substitution defined over A = {a,..., a d }, satisfying the hypothesis (AH). Let γ = (γ,..., γ A ) an eigenvector associated to its second eigenvalue θ 2. We define a map γ : A R by γ(a i ) = γ i, for a i A It extends to A + as follows, γ(w) = γ(w 0 ) + + γ(w l ) 5

24 Chapitre I. Substitution dynamical systems for w = w 0... w l A + and l N. We can remark that for any w A, γ(w) is the projection of abelianization homomorphism on the proper space of θ 2. That is, γ(w) =< l(w), v 2 > (I.5) with v 2 an eigenvector of R σ associated to θ 2. By the relation I.2 we have the following property, γ(σ n (w)) = < l(σ n (w)), v 2 > (I.6) = < Mσ n l(w), v 2 > (I.7) = < l(w), (Mσ) t n v 2 > (I.8) = < l(w), Rσv n 2 > (I.9) = θ2 n < l(w), v 2 > (I.0) = θ2 n γ(w) (I.) In addition, we can give a geometric sense to this. We note by B d the canonical basis of R d. 6 Definition 2.3. [] A stepped line L = (x n ) n 0 in R d is a sequence of points in R d such that the steps x n+ x n belong to a finite set. A canonical stepped line is a stepped line such that x 0 = 0 and for all n 0, x n+ x n belongs to the canonical basis B d of R d. Definition 2.4. Let L = (x n ) n 0 in R d be a canonical stepped line. The stepped curve C L R d of L is a concatenation of curves between the points x n. If x n+ x n = e B d the curve between x n and x n+ is C n : [0, ] R d, C n (t) = x n + te. For a A and using.5, we note by e a = l(a), all vectors belonging to the canonical basis B d. For any word w = w... w n A, we can write n e w = e(w) = e wk. k= Let w A be a word. We can associate a canonical stepped line L w in R A as the sequence (e pn ), where the p n are the prefixes of length n of w. We denote the set V w = n 0 {x w n } of vertices of the stepped line. We will denote L w n (resp. Vn w ) the finite stepped line associated with the prefix of w of length n (resp. its vertices set).

25 I.2 Substitutions with eigenvalues of modulus larger than one. Analogously, we denote C w R w the stepped curve associated to L w and C w n R n the finite stepped curve associated with the prefix of length n. If we fix a substitution σ satisfying (AH), we will be interested by the study of the projection of C σn (w) in the hyperplane E θ E θ2, for n N, where E θi is the proper space of θ i. Let P : R d R 2 be the projection on E θ E θ2. Let v, v 2 be eigenvectors of R σ associated to θ and θ 2 respectively. Let e = e i0 B d be a vector of canonical basis. We can write, P(e) = P(l(c)) = P(e i0 ) (I.2) = α u + α 2 u 2 E θ E θ2 (I.3) for some α, α 2 R with u, u 2 eigenvectors of R t σ = M σ, associated to θ and θ 2 respectively, such that if i = j < v i, u j >= 0 if i j with i, j {, 2} From Perron-Frobenius Theorem we can suppose that v is positive. Then < v, P(e) >= α < v, u > +α 2 < v, u 2 >= α because θ θ 2. If e = e i0, α = v (i 0 ) > 0. Analogously we obtain α 2 = v 2 (i 0 ). Then we have, P(e i0 ) = v (i 0 )u + v 2 (i 0 )u 2 E θ E θ2 (I.4) Now, let W = σ n (a) such that W = W... W l for any a A, n, l N. We have that Pe σ n (a) = i = i Pe Wi v (W i )u + v 2 (W i )u 2 (I.5) (I.6) = i < e Wi, v > u + < e Wi, v 2 > u 2 (I.7) = < e σ n (a), v > u + < e σ n (a), v 2 > u 2 (I.8) = θ n < e a, v > u + θ n 2 < e a, v 2 > u 2 (I.9) 7

26 Chapitre I. Substitution dynamical systems If e a = l(a) = e j0 for some e j0 B d, we can write Pe σ n (a) = θ n v (e j0 )u + θ n 2 v 2 (e j0 )u 2 (I.20) By abuse of notation, we can also write, Pe σ n (a) = θ n v (a)u + θ n 2 v 2 (a)u 2 (I.2) Analogously, for any word w A we have a similar relation Pe σ n (w) = θ n < e w, v > u + θ n 2 < e w, v 2 > u 2 (I.22) Definition 2.5 (Broken Line). Let w A be a word and n N. Let L σn (w) = (e pm ) m be the canonical stepped line of σ n (w). The broken line associated to σ n (w) is the stepped curve associated to the stepped line ((< e pm, v >, < e pm, v 2 >)) m. We will note it by C σn (w). Example 2.. C C σ() C 2 C σ(2) Figure I.3: Normalized broken line of σ 0 (). Figure I.4: Normalized broken line of σ 0 (2). Let M =

27 I.2 Substitutions with eigenvalues of modulus larger than one. With the relations I.3 and I.4 we can construct the substitution σ 0 : {, 2} {, 2} such that R σ0 = M. We have that θ = 8, θ 2 = 2 and v =, v 2 = 2 We can calculate the vertices of the normalized broken line for σ 0 () and σ 0 (2) to obtain the figures I.3 and I.4. Now, let us consider C σn (w) the stepped curve associated to the canonical stepped line L σn (w) = (e pm ) m. For n N we define L n : R d R 2 by x R d L n < x, v > (, < x, v 2 > ) (I.23) θ n θ2 n Thus, we can associate a stepped line in R 2 to L σn (w) = (e pm ) m, defined by L σn (w) = (L n (e pm )) m (I.24) We can remark that L σn (w) = (( < e p m, v > θ n, < e p m, v 2 > )) θ2 n m (I.25) We will note by C σn (w) the stepped curve associated to the stepped line L σn (w). Lemma 3. Let w A be a word. For any n N, the stepped curve C σn (w) is a Hölder continuous function. Proof. By definition, let x m+, x m be two elements in L σn (w). We know that x m+ and x m are joined by C m (t) = x m + tδ, with t [0, ] where δ = <e pm+ e pm,v > θ n <e pm+ e pm,v 2 > θ n 2 9

28 Chapitre I. Substitution dynamical systems that is, C σn (w) is the concatenation of affine linear functions. Then, we conclude that C σn (w) is a continuous function. We know that the affine linear functions are α-hölder, with 0 < α <. That is, if f(x) = h x + η is an affine function, we have that l f(y) f(x) h l α y x α, for x, y [0, l] and 0 < α <. Let t, t 2 [0, <e σ n (w),v > ], and let us suppose that θ n t [ < e p m, v > θ n for m, m 2 N., < e p m +, v > θ n ] and t 2 [ < e p m2, v > θ n Without loss of generality, we can suppose that the slope < e p m + e pm, v 2 > θ n 2 θ n < e pm + e pm, v >, < e p m2 +, v > ] θ n of C m is bigger that the slope of C m2. Then, there is t 2 [ <epm,v >, <ep m +,v > ] θ n θ n such that C σn (w) (t 2 ) = f m ( t 2 ) θ <e pm + epm,v n > θ2 n and f m (x) = s m x + η is the affine function with slope s m = <ep m + epm,v 2> Then, we can write C σn (w) (t 2 ) C σn (w) (t ) = f m ( t 2 ) f m (t ).. From the Hölder property of f m, we conclude that C σn (w) is α-hölder, with 0 < α <. Proposition. The limit lim n C σn (w) exists and it is a continuous function which we denote by C w. This function will be called the limit function of w. 20 Proof. Let us consider two vertices of the stepped line L σn (w), ( < e p m, v > θ n and ( < e p m+, v > θ n, < e p m, v 2 > ) θ2 n, < e p m+, v 2 > ) θ2 n Suppose that p m+ = p m a, for some a A. And σ(a) = a... a q.

29 I.2 Substitutions with eigenvalues of modulus larger than one. Without loss of generality, we will compare C σn (w) and C σn+ (w) on I = [0, < e a, v > ] θ n e a e a6 e a4 e a3 e a5 e a e a2 Figure I.5: Normalized broken line for σ(a). If C n (t) = tδ with t I and, δ = <e a,v > θ n <e a,v 2 > θ n 2 Then, C σn+ (w) (t) C σn (w) (t) max i=,...,q Cσn+ (w) (t i ) C n (t i ) (I.26) where t i = <ea...a i,v >. θ n+ We have, Replacing, C σn+ (w) (t i ) C n (t i ) = < e a...a i, v 2 > θ n+ 2 = < e a...a i, v 2 > θ2 n < e a...a i, v > θ n+ < e a...a i, v > θ 2 θ n < e a, v 2 > < e a, v > θ2 n < e a, v 2 > θ < e a, v > C σn+ (w) (t) C σn (w) (t) K θ n 2 (I.27) 2

30 Chapitre I. Substitution dynamical systems with K = max < e a...a i, v 2 > < e a...a i, v > < e a, v 2 > i=,...,q θ 2 θ < e a, v > we conclude that lim n C σn (w) = C w uniformly. Since C σn (w) is a Hölder continuous function we have the result. Remark 2.. If we go to the definition of broken line C σn (w) of σ n (w) with n N and w A, its stepped line is ((< e pm(σ n (w)), v >, < e pm(σ n (w)), v 2 >)) m=0,..., σ n (w) where p m (σ n (w)) is the prefix of length m of σ n (w). By the Definition 2.2 we note that < e pm(σ n (w)), v 2 > = < l(p m (σ n (w))), v 2 > (I.28) = γ(p m (σ n (w))). (I.29) We can use the proof of Lemma 3 to deduce that the broken line C σn (w) is a continuous function (It is the concatenation of affine linear functions). Such functions were studied in [7], [6],[2] and []. 2.2 Hausdorff dimension. Since the image of the limit function C w of a word w, is compact (by definition), is natural to ask for the dimension of certain sets of points. In our case, we asked for the dimension of minimal points of C w. Definition 2.6. Let X be a metric space. If S X and d [0, ), the Hausdorff dimension of S is defined by dim h (S) := inf { d 0 : C d H(S) = 0 } where, C d h(s) := inf { i r d i : there is a cover of S by balls with radio r i > 0 }. Definition 2.7. Let w = w... w i... w l A + be a word. We say that w i is a minimal letter of C w if C w (< e w0...w i, v >) is a minimum of the broken line of w. 22

31 I.2 Substitutions with eigenvalues of modulus larger than one. Proposition 2. Let σ be a substitution with Perron-Frobenious eigenvalue θ. Let us suppose that the broken line C σn (a) has Θ(k n ) minimal letters for any n N with a A. Then the Hausdorff dimension of S(C σ(a) ) is given by dim h (S(C σ(a) )) = log(k) log(θ ), where S(C σ(a) ) = {t R : C σ(a) (t) is a minimum} Remark 2.2. We have that θ is bigger than k. Indeed, the Euclidean norm of M σ is θ, ie. θ = M σ 2, and M σ 2 k. Proof Proposition 2. Without loss of generality, let us suppose that the broken line C σn (a) has k n minimal letters. We have that for a cover of radius /θ n, Ch(S(C d σn (a) )) k n θ nd However, if d < ln(k) ln(θ ), Then, lim n k n θ nd = 0. dim h (S(C σ(a) )) log(k) log(θ ). Let s = ln(k) ln(θ. Now, we will show that ) Ui s k = θ s for any cover {U i } i I of S(C σ(a) ). For the compactness of S(C σ(a) ), we will prove this for I finite. For each U i let j be the integer such that θ (j+) U i < θ j. Then U i can intersect at most one minimal point of S(C σj (a) ) since the separations of these minimal points is at least θ j and, because the open set condition is satisfied. If l j, then U i intersects at most k l j = k l θ sj k l θ s U i s minimal points of S(C σl (a) ). If we chose l large enough so that θ (l+) U i for all U i, since the {U i } intersect all k l minimal points of separation θ l. 23

32 Chapitre I. Substitution dynamical systems We conclude that k l i k l θ s U i s. 2.3 a-minimal letters and minimal points. In the following, we will study the broken line C W for any W A Definition 2.8 (minimal letter). Let w = w 0... w n A + be a word in the alphabet A. We say that the letter w i0 is minimal in w if, γ(w 0... w i0 ) γ(w 0... w j ), for any j {0,..., n} We note by S(w) the set of minimal letters in w and by m(w) = γ(w 0... w i0 ) its value. Remark 2.3. We can remark that if w i0 is minimal in w = w 0... w n A + then C w (< e w0...w i0, v >) is a minimum of the broken line of w. Then, the definitions 2.7 and 2.8 are equivalents. Example 2.2. Let us consider, σ 0 : {, 2} {, 2} with R σ0 = and θ = 8, θ 2 = 2, v =, v 2 = 2 Let w = σ 0 () = 22. We know that γ(2) = γ() + γ() + γ(2) = v 2 () + v 2 () + v 2 (2) = + 2 = 0 Then, the minimal letters in w are w 2 = 2 and w 5 = 2. Or with red color in the Figure I.3. Definition 2.9 (a-minimal letter). Let w = w 0... w n A + be a word in the alphabet A. Let a A be a letter. We say that the letter w i0 is a-minimal or minimal of type a in w if, 24

33 I.2 Substitutions with eigenvalues of modulus larger than one.. w i0 = a, 2. For any w j = a, γ(w 0... w i0 ) γ(w 0... w j ) For a A, we note by S a (w) the set of a-minimal letters in w and by m a (w) = γ(w 0... w i0 ) its value. Remark 2.4. The minimal letters are a-minimal letters too, for some a A. In effect, if w = w 0... w n A +, such that w i0 is minimal for w, by definition w i0 is w i0 -minimal for w. Example 2.3. Let σ 0 be the substitution as in Example 2.2. Let us consider w = σ 0 () = 22. Since γ(2) = 0 and γ() =, we have that γ() = γ(2) = γ(22). Then, the -minimal letters in w are w 0, w 3 and w 6. Definition 2.0 (Minimal point). Let σ : A A + be a substitution in the alphabet A. Let x X σ be a sequence. For n Z, we defined γ n (x) = 0, n = 0 γ(x 0 ) + + γ(x n ), n > 0 (γ(x ) + + γ(x n )), n < 0 We will say that x is a minimal point in X σ if γ n (x) 0, for any n Z. Definition 2.. Let σ : A A + be a substitution in the alphabet A. Let w A + be a word. Let a, b A be two letters a-minimal and b-minimal of w respectively, such that we can write w = p a as a and w = p b bs b for some p a, s a, p b, s b A. For c A, we say a < c b in w if there are prefixes and suffixes p c (a), s c (a), p c (b), s c (b) A, such that (i) σ(a) = p c (a)cs c (a), σ(b) = p c (b)cs c (b), with c c-minimal letter in σ(a) and σ(b). (ii) γ(σ(p a )p c (a)) < γ(σ(p b )p c (b)). Remark 2.5. Notice that σ(w) = σ(p a )σ(a)σ(s a ) = σ(p a )p c (a)cs c (a)σ(s a ) and σ(w) = σ(p b )σ(b)σ(s b ) = σ(p b )p c (b)cs c (b)σ(s b ). 25

34 Chapitre I. Substitution dynamical systems Then, the relation < c of the last definition is given by comparing prefixes of c in σ(w) by γ. Example 2.4. Let us consider, σ : with and R σ = θ 2 = θ θ, v 2 = θ 2 Let w = σ () = 224. We will compare w 3 = with w 4 = 4 in σ (). Since γ() = 3 + θ 2 = > γ(22) = 2, we have that w 3 = is -minimal letter in σ (). In addition, γ(σ (22)22) = θ 2 γ(22) + γ(22) = θ 2 ( θ 2 ) + θ 2 (I.30) = 2 3θ 2 = (I.3) On the other hand, let u = σ (4) = 334. We obtain γ() = 3 + θ 2 = γ(3) = 2 + θ 2 = γ(33) = + θ 2 =.680 Then u 0 = is -minimal letter in σ (4). Moreover, 26 γ(σ (22)ε) = θ 2 γ(22) = 2θ 2 = (I.32)

35 I.2 Substitutions with eigenvalues of modulus larger than one. From I.3 and I.32, we conclude that w 3 < w 4 in σ (), ie. < 4 in σ (). Remark 2.6. We have that for a word w, < is a partial order relation between minimal letters of each type in w. If σ is positive( ie. M σ is positive) we can consider < like a total order. In (ii) if we change < for (or =) we can define c (or = c ) for any c A. If we have that a c b for any c A and a, b minimal in w, we will write a b. Lemma 4. Let σ : A A + be a substitution in the alphabet A. Let w A + be a word in the alphabet A and c a letter in A. Then c is a partial order between minimal letters of their type in w. If σ is positive then c is a total order between minimal letters of their type in w. Proof. Let w = w... w l A + be a word in the alphabet A and c a letter in A. Let us suppose that c appears in σ(w i ) and σ(w j ) for some i j. Without loss of generality, we can suppose that c is c-minimal in σ(w i ) and σ(w j ), then we can compare σ(w i ) and σ(w j ) as the Definition 2.. The reflexivity, antisymmetricity, and transitivity are inherited from (ii) of Definition 2.. If σ is positive, without loss of generality, we can suppose that c is c-minimal in σ(w i ) for any i. Then we can compare all σ(w i ) s with respect to c. Proposition 3. Let σ : A A + be a primitive substitution in the alphabet A. Let w = w... w n be a word in A + and a A. Let us suppose that σ(w) = u... u m and u i0 is a-minimal letter in σ(w). Then there exists w j0 an w j0 -minimal letter of w such that u i0 is a-minimal for σ(w j0 ). Proof. Let σ(w) = u... u m and u i0 an a-minimal letter in σ(w). By construction we know that there exists w j0 such that σ(w j0 ) = pu i0 s for p, s A. Let us suppose that w j0 = b for some b A. If w j0 is not b minimal in w, there is w j another b minimal letter in w, with j 0 j, such that : γ(w... w j ) < γ(w... w j0 ) Then θ 2 γ(w... w j ) = γ(σ(w... w j )) < γ(σ(w... w j0 )) = θ 2 γ(w... w j0 ) 27

36 Chapitre I. Substitution dynamical systems However, w j = b = w j0 therefore σ(w j ) = pu i s and we conclude that γ(σ(w... w j ) p) < γ(σ(w... w j0 )p) and that there exists another u i = u i0 such that γ(u... u i ) < γ(u... u i0 ) which is a contradiction. 2.4 Sub-automaton of minimal letters. By Proposition 3 we can define a sub-automaton of prefix-suffix automaton such that is well defined. Definition 2.2. Let σ : A A + be a primitive substitution in the alphabet A. The cutting set of σ for minimal letters is defined by : P M σ = {(p, a, s) A A A b A, σ(b) = pas, with a an a minimal letter in σ(b)} Recalling the Definition.2 we have the following definition for minimal letters. Definition 2.3. Let σ : A A + be a primitive substitution in the alphabet A. The sub-automaton of minimal letters A M σ of the prefix-suffix automaton A σ is defined by : The states set is A. The label set is P M σ. There is an arrow from a to b labeled by e = (p, a, s) P M σ if σ(b) = pas and a is minimal of its type in σ(b). Example 2.5. Some examples of sub-automaton of minimal letters : 28

37 I.2 Substitutions with eigenvalues of modulus larger than one. (22,, 4) (22, 2, 4) (222,, 4) 2 (2, 2, 4) (ε,, 334) (ε,, 3334) (22, 4, ε) (222, 4, ε) (, 3, 34) 3 4 (333, 4, ε) (, 3, 334) (33, 4, ε) Figure I.6: Sub-automaton of minimal letters (A M σ ), for σ as in Example 2.4. In bold : dominant letters. (ε,, 22) (22,, 22) (222,, 2) (2, 2, 22) (2,, 2) 2 (22, 2, 2) (2, 2, ) (22,, ) (, 2, 2) (222, 2, ε) Figure I.7: Sub-automaton of minimal letters (A M σ 0 ), for σ 0 as in Example 2.2. Proposition 4. Let σ : A A + be a primitive substitution in the alphabet A. Let a A be a letter. Let b A be a b-minimal letter in σ n (a), with n N. Then there is a sequence {(p i, a i, s i )} n i=0 P n σ which is recognized by the sub-automaton of minimal letters A M σ and e 0 = (p 0, b, s 0 ). Proof. Let w = σ(a), u = σ 2 (a) and u i = b be a b-minimal letter in u = u 0... u i... u l. By the Proposition 3 there is w j a minimal letter of its type in w = w 0... w j... w m and σ(w j ) = pu i s with u i b-minimal in σ(w j ). We write (p 0, a 0, s 0 ) = (p, u i, s) and (p, a, s ) = (w 0... w j, w j, w j+... w m ). Then A M σ recognizes the sequence {(p i, a i, s i )} i=0 (P M σ ) 2 by construction. 29

38 Chapitre I. Substitution dynamical systems Let us consider n N, w = σ n (a) and u = σ n+ (a). Let u i = b be a b-minimal letter in σ n+ (a) = u 0... u i... u l. By the Proposition 3 there is w j a minimal letter of its type in σ n (a) = w 0... w j... w m and σ(w j ) = pu i s with u i b-minimal in σ(w j ) for some p, s A +. Analogously, we write (p 0, a 0, s 0 ) = (p, u i, s) and (p, a, s ) = (w 0... w j, w j, w j+... w m ). By induction and the Proposition 3, for a i minimal letter of its type in σ n i (a) with i, there is a i+ minimal letter of its type in σ n i (a) such that a i is a i -minimal in σ(a i+ ) = p i a i s i for some p i, s i A +. This method gives a sequence {(p i, a i, s i )} n i=0 (P M σ ) n with the previous property and hence is recognized by the minimal letters sub-automaton A M σ. Remark 2.7. From the previous proof, we note that for the given sequence in Proposition 4 we have σ(a i+ ) = p i a i s i for any i. In addition, σ n (a) = σ n (p n )... σ 2 (p 2 )σ(p )p 0.a 0 s 0 σ(s )σ 2 (s 2 )... σ n (s n ) (I.33) Corollary. Let σ : A A + be a primitive substitution in the alphabet A. Let a 0 A be a minimal letter in σ n (a), with a A and n N. Then, there is a sequence {(p i, a i, s i )} n i=0 (P M σ ) n satisfying I.33. Proof. Let w i be a minimal letter in σ n (a) = w... w l. By the remark 2.4, we know that w i is w i -minimal letter in σ n (a). Then by the Proposition 4 there is a sequence {(p i, a i, s i )} n i=0 in P M σ recognized by the sub-automaton of minimal letters such that e 0 = (w... w i, w i, w i+... w l ). Thus, w i is recognized by minimal A M σ letters sub-automaton. 2.5 Dominant letters. We introduce a new definition which will allow the study of minimal letters and minimal points. Analogously, we will can define a sub-automaton whose arrows correspond to minimal letters. Definition 2.4. Let w A + be a word and σ a primitive substitution in A. We define the alphabet of w, A(w) A, such that b A(w) if there are p, s A with w = pbs. Definition 2.5 (Dominant letters). Let w = w 0... w n A + be a word in the alphabet A and σ a primitive substitution in A. Let w i, w j be two minimal letters of their type in w. 30

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