Introduction to Path Integral Monte Carlo. Part III.

Transcription

1 Introduction to Path Integral Monte Carlo. Part III. Alexey Filinov, Michael Bonitz Institut für Theoretische Physik und Astrophysik, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, D Kiel, Germany November 19, 2008

2 Outline 1 Calculation of superfluid fraction: finite and macroscopic systems 2 Winding number: ergodicity. Worm algorithm. Grand Canonical ensemble 3 Fermion sign problem 4 Comparison of Fermi/Bose statistics: superfluidity 5 Numerical issues of PIMC Improved high-temperature action Effective pair potential Thermodynamic averages 6 Summary

3 Outline 1 Calculation of superfluid fraction: finite and macroscopic systems 2 Winding number: ergodicity. Worm algorithm. Grand Canonical ensemble 3 Fermion sign problem 4 Comparison of Fermi/Bose statistics: superfluidity 5 Numerical issues of PIMC Improved high-temperature action Effective pair potential Thermodynamic averages 6 Summary

4 Examples: Superfluidity Superfluidity: loss of viscosity of interacting bosons below critical temperature. Discovered in liquid 4 He (P.L.Kapitza, 1938). Rotating bucket experiment (Andronikashvili): T > T BKT : Spontaneous creation of vortices by thermal excitation. Vanishing of superfluid density. Uniform 2D system: Superfluid - normal fluid phase transition at critical temperature T BKT (Berezinskii, Kosterlitz, Thouless): k B T BKT = ρ s π 2 2m 2

5 Computation of superfluid fraction γ sf Two-fluid model (Landau): Only normal fluid component of a liquid responds to slow rotation of the container walls.

6 Computation of superfluid fraction γ sf Quantum mechanical moment of inertia I qm deviates from classical expectation value I class non-classical rotational inertia (NCRI) γ sf = 1 Iqm I class, I qm = d ˆL z dω, I class = Hamiltonian in the rotating frame: NX m i ri 2 i=1 Ĥ ω = Ĥ0 ωˆl z, ˆL z = Tr[ˆL z e βĥω ], ˆLz = NX (x i p iy y i p ix ) i=1

7 Computation of superfluid fraction γ sf Quantum mechanical moment of inertia I qm deviates from classical expectation value I class non-classical rotational inertia (NCRI) γ sf = 1 Iqm I class, I qm = d ˆL z dω, I class = Hamiltonian in the rotating frame: NX m i ri 2 i=1 Ĥ ω = Ĥ0 ωˆl z, ˆL z = Tr[ˆL z e βĥω ], ˆLz = NX (x i p iy y i p ix ) i=1 Derivative of the exponential operator de βĥ ω dω = MX k=1 e (k 1)τĤω de τĥ ω dω e (M k)τĥω = Z β 0 dte tĥω dĥ ω dω dte (β t)ĥω

8 Computation of superfluid fraction γ sf Quantum mechanical moment of inertia I qm deviates from classical expectation value I class non-classical rotational inertia (NCRI) γ sf = 1 Iqm I class, I qm = d ˆL z dω, I class = Hamiltonian in the rotating frame: Ĥ ω = Ĥ 0 ωˆl z, ˆL z = Tr[ˆL z e βĥ ω ], ˆL z = Derivative of the exponential operator NX m i ri 2 i=1 NX (x i p iy y i p ix ) i=1 de βĥ ω dω = MX k=1 e (k 1)τĤω de τĥ ω d ˆL z dω ω 0 = dω * Zβ 0 e (M k)τĥω = Z β dtˆl z e tĥ 0 ˆL z e (β t)ĥ 0 + = I qm 0 tĥω dĥω dte dω dte (β t)ĥω

9 Computation of superfluid fraction γ sf Quantum mechanical moment of inertia I qm deviates from classical expectation value I class non-classical rotational inertia (NCRI) γ sf = 1 Iqm, I qm = d ˆL z NX I class dω, I class = m i ri 2 Hamiltonian in the rotating frame: Ĥ ω = Ĥ0 ωˆl z, ˆL z = Tr[ˆL z e βĥω ], ˆLz = Derivative of the exponential operator de βĥ ω dω = MX k=1 e (k 1)τĤω de τĥ ω dω e (M k)τĥω = Z β 0 i=1 NX (x i p iy y i p ix ) Superfluid fraction (in linear response ω 0) * Zβ + γ sf = ρs ρ = 1 1 dtˆl z e tĥ 0 ˆL z e (β t)ĥ 0 I class 0 i=1 tĥω dĥω dte dω dte (β t)ĥω

10 Computation of superfluid fraction γ sf d L z dω = τ Tr " ˆL 2 ze MτĤ 0 + # MX ˆL ze (k 1)τĤ 0 ˆLze (M (k 1))τĤ 0 k=2 Consider any term in the second sum. Angular momentum operates only on the kinetic energy part of the action and commutes with the internal potential energy. In the coordinate representation we obtain Z NX «drdr 1... dr M 1 ( i ) x i y i R e τĥ 0 R 1... = y i x i i=1 Z NX «2π drdr 1... dr M 1 ( i ) [r 1i r i ] z R e τĥ 0 R 1... i=1 Area of the path segment NX A 1z = [r 1i r i ] z, A kz = i=1 λ 2 τ NX [r (k+1)i r ki ] z Hence, the second sum can be written as.. = Tr[..ˆρ] = R dr... R e τĥ 0 R 1... «2 ( i ) 2 2π MX «2 2π D E! A λ 2 1z Akz A 2 τ λ 2 1z τ i=1

11 Computation of superfluid fraction γ sf Similar for the first term (operator ˆL z operates twice on one link) we obtain «2 «ˆL 2 z R e τĥ0 R 1 = ( i ) 2 2π A 2 1z R e τĥ0 R 1 +( i ) 2 2π X N (x λ 2 τ λ 2 i x 1i +y 1i y i ) τ i=1 Now we Combine the first and the second term I qm = I c I q where I c is the classical part of the responce and the quantum part NX I c = m (x i x 1i + y 1i y i ) i=1 I q = m2 2 τ A1zAz, Az = M X k=1 A kz In the end do symmetrization: A 1zA z = 1 M MP A kz A z = 1 P M A M kz A z = A 2 z. k=1 k=1

12 Superfluid fraction: finite systems Final result. Superfluid fraction in a finite system: particles are placed in a external field (e.g. a rotating cylinder around ω) γ sf = 4m2 A 2 z 2 βi class, A z = A ω ω [P.Sindzingre, M.Klein, D.Ceperley, Phys.Rev. Lett. 63, 1601 (1981)] Area enclosed by the paths A = 1 2 NX M 1 X r ki r (k+1)i i=1 k=

13 Superfluid fraction: finite systems Final result. Superfluid fraction in a finite system: particles are placed in a external field (e.g. a rotating cylinder around ω) γ sf = 4m2 A 2 z 2 βi class, A z = A ω ω [P.Sindzingre, M.Klein, D.Ceperley, Phys.Rev. Lett. 63, 1601 (1981)] Area enclosed by the paths A = NX M 1 X r ki r (k+1)i i=1 k=0 + Superfluid fraction for N = 5 charged bosons in a two-dimensional trap. λ = (e 2 /ɛl 0)/( ω) is the coupling constant.

14 Superfluid fraction: macroscopic systems Instead of a filled cylinder (with N particles) we consider two cylinders with the radius R and spacing d, with d R. Such a torus is topologically equivalent to the usual periodic boundary conditions: I class = mnr 2, A z = N round πr 2 = W z R/2 R d W z = 2πR N round Winding number W : total length of the paths along the torus W = Superfluid fraction: NX [r i (β) r i (0)] i=1 z γ sf = 4m2 A 2 z m W 2 2 βi class 2 β N Simulation box with periodic boundary conditions

15 Outline 1 Calculation of superfluid fraction: finite and macroscopic systems 2 Winding number: ergodicity. Worm algorithm. Grand Canonical ensemble 3 Fermion sign problem 4 Comparison of Fermi/Bose statistics: superfluidity 5 Numerical issues of PIMC Improved high-temperature action Effective pair potential Thermodynamic averages 6 Summary

16 Winding number: ergodicity Changing a winding number requires a global update in the permutation space. We start from identity permutations

17 Winding number: ergodicity Changing a winding number requires a global update in the permutation space. Two particle exchanges are very probable: r λ D (T )

18 Winding number: ergodicity Changing a winding number requires a global update in the permutation space. Three particle exchanges can happen but very infrequent: 2 r > λ D (T ). Probability of longer permutations is exponentially suppressed! We are trapped in 2-3-particle permutation sector Zero winding numbers and zero superfluidity!

19 Winding number: ergodicity Changing a winding number requires a global update in the permutation space. Idea: expand the configuration space to the offdiagonal sector G and sample offdiagonal density matrix ρ(r, ˆPR ; β) Worm algorithm [Prokof ev, Svistunov and Tupitsyn (1997); N.Prokof ev, B.Svistunov, Boninsegni, Phys.Rev.Lett 96, (2006)]

20 Winding number: ergodicity Changing a winding number requires a global update in the permutation space. Continue to work in the offdiagonal sector G to sample two-particle exchanges

21 Winding number: ergodicity Changing a winding number requires a global update in the permutation space. Enjoy stable high acceptance rate for any permutation length!

22 Winding number: ergodicity Changing a winding number requires a global update in the permutation space. Enjoy stable high acceptance rate for any permutation length!

23 Winding number: ergodicity Changing a winding number requires a global update in the permutation space. Occasionally close the trajectory to return back in the diagonal sector Z. Measure thermodynamic observables related to the diagonal density matrix ρ(r, ˆPR; β) or partition function Z.

24 Winding number: ergodicity Changing a winding number requires a global update in the permutation space. Conclusion: Accurate statistics on W requires permutation lengths N 1/d. With typical few-particle update sampling (diagonal sector) we stay in one permutation sector non-ergodic sampling of W. More advance algorithms are required: Ising model cluster algorithm; PIMC worm algorithm (expanded conf. space Z and G).

25 Worm algorithm Key features: All updates in open-path-configurations are performed exclusively through the end-points of the disconnected paths Local sampling with high acceptance rates! No global updates with exponentially low acceptance! Topological classes are sampled efficiently. No critical slowing down in most cases. Open paths are related to important physics, i.e correlation functions, and are not merely an algorithm trick. Usual PIMC in Canonical ensemble can now be easily generalized to Grand Canonical ensemble New tool for corresponding experimental systems.

26 Why Grand Canonical ensemble is better Z GCE = X e N=0 βr 0 µ N(τ) dτ ZCE (N, V, β) Advantages of the simulations in grand canonical ensemble (GCE): Off-diagonal one-particle d. matrix: D E n(r, r, t t) = Ψ(r, t ) Ψ (r, t) Condensate fraction: n(r, r ) =N 0φ 0 (r)φ 0(r )+ + X i 0 n i φ i (r)φ i (r ) Canonical (CE) Grand Canonical (GCE) Ψ(r, t ) Ψ (r, t) n(r, r ) r r N 0

27 Why Grand Canonical ensemble is better Z GCE = X e N=0 βr 0 µ N(τ) dτ ZCE (N, V, β) Advantages of the simulations in grand canonical ensemble (GCE): Off-diagonal one-particle d. matrix: D E n(r, r, t t) = Ψ(r, t ) Ψ (r, t) Condensate fraction: n(r, r ) =N 0φ 0 (r)φ 0(r )+ + X i 0 n i φ i (r)φ i (r ) Prokof ev, Svistunov, Boninsegni, PRE 74, (2007) n(r, r ) r r N 0

28 Why Grand Canonical ensemble is better Z GCE = X e N=0 βr 0 µ N(τ) dτ ZCE (N, V, β) Advantages of the simulations in grand canonical ensemble (GCE): µ is an input parameter and N µ is a simple diagonal property. Compressibility, kvt = (N N ) 2 µ. N µ Average particle number N 10 Average particle number for chemical potential (T=0.5 K) λ Chemical potential µ in K µ-dependence of the partice number N in 2D He 4 clusters in a parabolic trap ω 1/λ 2. µ

29 Why Grand Canonical ensemble is better Z GCE = X e N=0 βr 0 µ N(τ) dτ ZCE (N, V, β) Advantages of the simulations in grand canonical ensemble (GCE): e 2 R p(x)dx R 1 R 2 Solve ergodicity issue for disorder problems Allows for efficient sampling of exponentially rare event

30 Outline 1 Calculation of superfluid fraction: finite and macroscopic systems 2 Winding number: ergodicity. Worm algorithm. Grand Canonical ensemble 3 Fermion sign problem 4 Comparison of Fermi/Bose statistics: superfluidity 5 Numerical issues of PIMC Improved high-temperature action Effective pair potential Thermodynamic averages 6 Summary

31 Sign problem Let us consider a standard Monte Carlo problem: Integration over space of states ν. Each configuration has a weight factor: Eν /T W ν > 0, e Expectation values: P A = ν Aν Wν P Wν

32 Sign problem Let us consider a standard Monte Carlo problem: Integration over space of states ν. Each configuration has a weight factor: Eν /T W ν > 0, e Expectation values: P A = ν Aν Wν P Wν Frequently for quantum mechanical systems W ν is not-positive definite function. Then P ν Aν sign(wν) Wν A = P sign(wν) Wν ν Now we can proceed with the standart MC using W ν as a sampling probability P ν A A = ν sign(w ν ) A sign P = ν sign(w ν ) sign

33 Sign problem The trouble comes in cases: sign 0. Both A sign and sign have finite errorbars which fluctuate 1 + or A + δa = A sign + δ AS sign + δ S A sign sign δa A δ AS A sign 0 + δ S sign 0 δ AS A sign + δ S sign «

34 Sign problem The trouble comes in cases: sign 0. Both A sign and sign have finite errorbars which fluctuate 1 + or A + δa = A sign + δ AS sign + δ S A sign sign δa A δ AS A sign 0 + δ S sign 0 δ AS A sign + δ S sign There is no generic solution of the sign-problem. This prevents MC methods from studies: interacting fermions magnetic systems real time dynamics, etc. But the sign-problem can be reduced or eliminated by a proper choice of the basis set. Example: ĤΨ ν = E νψ ν, Z = X ν e βeν Ψ-eigenfunctions - all terms are positive «

35 Fermion sign problem in PIMC Metropolis algorithm gives the same distribution of permutations for both Fermi and Bose systems. The reason is that for sampling permutations we use the modulus of the off-diagonal density matrix ρ S/A (R, R; β) = 1 X (±1) P ρ(r, N! ˆPR; β) = P = 1 X Z (±1) P dr 1... dr M 1 ρ(r, R 1; β)... ρ(r M 1, N! ˆPR; β) P Bosons: all permutations contribute with the same (positive) sign Fermions: positive and negative terms (corresponding to even and odd permutations) are close in their absolute value and cancel each other. Accurate calculation of this small difference is drastically hampered with the increase of quantum degeneracy (low T, high density).

36 Fermion problem: partial solutions for Quantum MC 1 Fixed-node (fixed-phase) approximation Use restricted (reduced) area of PIMC integration which contains only even permutations. Most of the area with the cancellation of even and odd permutations are excluded using an approximate trial ansatz for the N-particle fermion density matrix. Requires knowledge of nodes of DM. References: D.M.Ceperley, Fermion Nodes, J. Stat. Phys. 63, 1237 (1991); D.M.Ceperley, Path Integral Calculations of Normal Liquid 3He, Phys. Rev. Lett. 69, 331 (1992).

37 Fermion problem: partial solutions for Quantum MC 2 Direct PIMC Do not sample individual permutations in the sum. Instead use the full expression presented in a form of an determinant. In this case the absolute value of the determinant is used in the sampling probabilities. Its value becomes close to zero in the regions of equal contributions of even and odd permutations and Monte Carlo sampling successfully avoids such regions. References: V.S.Filinov, M.Bonitz, W.Ebeling, and V.E.Fortov, Thermodynamics of hot dense H-plasmas: Path integral Monte Carlo simulations and analytical approximations, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 43, 743 (2001).

38 Fermion problem: partial solutions for Quantum MC 3 Multilevel-blocking PIMC Trace the cancellations of permutations by grouping the path coordinates into blocks (levels). Use numerical integration to get good estimation of the fermion density matrix at high temperature. Further use it in the sampling probabilities of path coordinates on the next level (corresponding to the density matrix at lower temperature). Most of the sign fluctuations are already excluded at higher levels and sampling at low levels (lower temperatures) becomes more efficient. References: R.Egger, W.Hausler, C.H.Mak, and H.Grabert, Crossover from Fermi Liquid to Wigner Molecule Behavior in Quantum Dots, Phys. Rev. Lett. 82, 3320 (1999).

39 Comparison of Fermi/Bose statistics for excitons Exact treatment of excitons as composite particles consisting of two fermions: N e!n h! permutations, total density matrix is antisymmetric.

40 Comparison of Fermi/Bose statistics for excitons Exact treatment of excitons as composite particles consisting of two fermions: N e!n h! permutations, total density matrix is antisymmetric. Exact fermionic calculations clearly show the effect of Fermi repulsion on the radial distributions. This favors localization of individual particles and reduces the density in between the central particle and the shell. Although the effect is small it has a large effect on the superfluid fraction.

41 Outline 1 Calculation of superfluid fraction: finite and macroscopic systems 2 Winding number: ergodicity. Worm algorithm. Grand Canonical ensemble 3 Fermion sign problem 4 Comparison of Fermi/Bose statistics: superfluidity 5 Numerical issues of PIMC Improved high-temperature action Effective pair potential Thermodynamic averages 6 Summary

42 Comparison of Fermi/Bose statistics: superfluidity Simulation: Spin polarized electron-hole bilayer (two coupled ZnSe quantum wells). External confinement: parabolic trap. Parameters: T = 312mK, d = 20.1nm. A.Filinov, M.Bonitz, P.Ludwig, and Yu.E.Lozovik, phys. stat. sol. (c) 3, No. 7, 2457 (2006) Applicability of bosonic model: Critical density: ρ cm 2 ρ ρ : both models agree. ρ > ρ : fermionic calculations indicate drop in the superfluid fraction.

43 Outline 1 Calculation of superfluid fraction: finite and macroscopic systems 2 Winding number: ergodicity. Worm algorithm. Grand Canonical ensemble 3 Fermion sign problem 4 Comparison of Fermi/Bose statistics: superfluidity 5 Numerical issues of PIMC Improved high-temperature action Effective pair potential Thermodynamic averages 6 Summary

44 Improved high-temperature action We need to improve the simple factorization formula for unbound potentials, e.g. V (r) = 1/r 2 3 NY ρ(r, R, τ) ρ F (r i, r i, τ) exp 4 τ Y V (r jk ) 5 j<k i=1 not be normalized (due to singularity). Alternative: take into account two-body correlations exactly ρ(r, R ; τ) NY i=1 ρ F (r i, r i ; τ) Y j<k ρ [2] (r j, r k, r j, r k; τ) ρ F (r i, r i ; τ)ρ F (r k, r k ; τ) + O(ρ[3] ), Three-body and higher order terms become negligible by decreasing τ = β/m.

45 Two-body density matrix Effective pair potential U pair ρ [2] (r 1, r 2, r 1, r 2; τ) ρ F (r 1, r 1 ; τ)ρ F (r 2, r 2 ; τ) = e τu U pair (r 1 r 2, r 1 r 2; τ) is temperature-dependent and finite at r 12 = 0. Two-body density matrix ρ [2] can be obtained by solving two-particle problem. Replace singular potentials with bounded effective potentials defined as h i ρ(r 12, r 12; τ) = ρ F (r 12, r 12; β) exp τu pair (r 12, r 12; τ) pair 12

46 Advantages of effective potentials Exact treatment of pair correlations allows: drastically reduce number of factorization factors reduce dimension of integrals simplification of path integral sampling. Approaches to computation of the pair density matrix: 1 Cumulant approximation (Feynman-Kacs) [R.Feynman and A.R.Hibbs Quantum Mechanics and Path Integral] 2 Solution of two-particle Bloch equation (matrix squaring technique) [Klemm and Storer (1974), D.Ceperley] 3 Perturbation or semi-classical approximation [Kelbg, Ebeling, Deutsch, Feynman, Kleinert ( )]

47 Two-body density matrix: eigenstates and Feynman-Kacs Sum over eigenstates of the Hamiltonian ρ(r, r, τ) = X i e τe i Ψ i (r) Ψ i (r ) Can be used if all eigenstates are known analytically, e.g. for Coulomb potential (Pollock Comm. Phys. 52, 49 (1988)). Feynman-Kac formula: ρ(r, r ; τ) = 2 Z r(τ)=r Z τ dt 3 * = Dr(t) exp 4 mṙ 2 (t)/2 + V 12(r(t)) 5 = r(0)=r 0 τr e 0 + V 12 (r(t))dt The average can be calculated by Monte Carlo sampling of all Gaussian random walks from r to r. ρ F

48 Two-body density matrix: matrix squaring Matrix squaring technique: Factorization into a center-of-mass, relative coordinates, ρ(r i, r j, r i, r j; τ) = ρ cm(r, R ; τ)ρ(r, r ; τ), and expansion in partial waves: ρ 2D (r, r ; τ) = ρ 3D (r, r ; τ) = 1 2π r r + X l= ρ l (r, r ; τ)e i lθ, 1 + X (2l + 1) ρ 4πr r l (r, r ; τ) P l (cos Θ) l=0 Convolution equation: k-iterations raise the temperature by 2 k : τ/2 k τ Z 0 dr ρ l (r, r ; τ 2 m+1 ) ρ l(r, r ; τ 2 m+1 ) = ρ l(r, r ; τ ), m = k 1,..., 0 2m Semi-classical approximation: the start for the matrix-squaring iterations Z! r ρ l (r, r ; τ/2 k ) = exp τ/2k V (x)dx r r r

49 Two-body density matrix: perturbative solution First order perturbation solution for the two-particle Bloch equation: ρ ij = (m im j ) 3/2 (2π τ) 3 Solution for Coulomb interaction: τ ρ(r i, r j, r i, r j; τ) = Ĥ ρ(r i, r j, r i, r j; τ) h exp m i 2 2 τ (r i r j) 2i h exp m j 2 2 τ (r i r j) 2i exp[ τφ ij ], Φ ij (r ij, r ij; τ) e i e j Z 1 0 dα d ij (α) erf d ij (α)/λ ij 2 p α(1 α)!, where d ij (α) = αr ij + (1 α)r ij, erf(x) is the error function, R erf(x) = 2 x π 0 dte t2, and λ 2 ij = 2 τ 2µ ij with µ 1 ij = m 1 i + m 1 j. The diagonal element (r ij = r ij ) is called the Kelbg potential (DKP) 2 Φ (r ij, τ) = q iq j 41 e r 2 ij λ 2 ij + π r» «3 ij r ij 1 erf γ ij 5. r ij λ ij γ ij λ ij

50 Effective pair potential Solid lines: electron electron (e e) and electron proton (e p) potential U pair at T = 10 6 K. Dotted lines: Coulomb interaction; dashed lines: Deutsch potential; open circles: U F variational perturbative potential (Feynman and Kleinert). Distances are in a B = 2 /m ee 2 and potentials are in Ha = e 2 /a B units.

51 Effective pair potential: temperature dependence 0.0 a) U(β) 0.0 b) U(β)+β U(β)/ β K K K K K K K U pair Φ Kelbg W ω, x m Φ 0 Kelbg r/a B r/a B [Filinov,Golubnychiy,Bonitz,Ebeling,Dufty, PRE 70, (2004)] K U pair Φ Kelbg W ω, x m Φ 0 Kelbg (a): Effective electron-proton potential (in units of Ha): the DKP Φ 0 (r; β), the improved DKP Φ(r; β), variational potential W Ω,xm 1, pair potential U p corresponding to the exact density matrix. Temperatures 5 000, , and K. (b): Contribution to the potential energy: f (β) = U(β) + β U(β), Ep = Tr[f (β)ˆρ]/z. β

52 Estimators for thermodynamic averages Quantities of interest: energy, pressure (equation of state), specific heat, structure factor, pair distribution functions, condensate or superfluid fraction, etc. All quantities can be obtained by averaging with the thermal density matrix or as derivatives of the partition function Z.

53 Estimators for thermodynamic averages Quantities of interest: energy, pressure (equation of state), specific heat, structure factor, pair distribution functions, condensate or superfluid fraction, etc. All quantities can be obtained by averaging with the thermal density matrix or as derivatives of the partition function Z. 1 We usually calculate only ratios of integrals. Free energy and entropy require special techniques. Examples: Total energy E = 1 Z Z β = 1 Z dr Z Z ρ(r, R; β) = E = dmn 2β ρ(r, R; β), β dr 1... dr M 1 (e S kin S V )/λ dmn τ * * M 1 1 X β i=0 + π (R i R i+1 ) 2 + λ 2 τ Kinetic energy and pressure E kin = m βz Z m, P = F V = 1 3V * 1 M M 1 X i=0 2E kin X i<j + d dτ (τu(r i, τ)). + d(τu(r i, τ)) r ij dr ij

54 Estimators for thermodynamic averages Quantities of interest: energy, pressure (equation of state), specific heat, structure factor, pair distribution functions, condensate or superfluid fraction, etc. All quantities can be obtained by averaging with the thermal density matrix or as derivatives of the partition function Z. 1 We usually calculate only ratios of integrals. Free energy and entropy require special techniques. MP 2 The variance of some estimators can be large: A = 1 A(R M i ) ± σ A / M. Use virial estimators. Introduce temperature-dependent measure i=1

55 Estimators for thermodynamic averages Quantities of interest: energy, pressure (equation of state), specific heat, structure factor, pair distribution functions, condensate or superfluid fraction, etc. All quantities can be obtained by averaging with the thermal density matrix or as derivatives of the partition function Z. 1 We usually calculate only ratios of integrals. Free energy and entropy require special techniques. MP 2 The variance of some estimators can be large: A = 1 A(R M i ) ± σ A / M. Use virial estimators. Introduce temperature-dependent measure ix R i (τ) = R 0 + λ τ ξ m, i = 1,..., M 1. S kin = M 1 X i=0 m=1 M 1 π X (R i R i+1 ) 2 = πξi+1 2 f (β), λ 2 τ Z ρ(r, R; β) = E = dn 2β + i=0 Z dr1..dr M 1 (..) = λ dmn τ dξ1..dξ M 1 λ dmn τ * X U(Ri (τ)) + β U(R i(τ) R i (τ) i=1 λ d(m 1)N τ (..) 1 R i (τ) β +. λ dn τ

56 Estimators for thermodynamic averages Quantities of interest: energy, pressure (equation of state), specific heat, structure factor, pair distribution functions, condensate or superfluid fraction, etc. All quantities can be obtained by averaging with the thermal density matrix or as derivatives of the partition function Z. 1 We usually calculate only ratios of integrals. Free energy and entropy require special techniques. MP 2 The variance of some estimators can be large: A = 1 A(R M i ) ± σ A / M. Use virial estimators. Introduce temperature-dependent measure 3 Take care for other sources of errors: systematic (Trotter formula), statistical (autocorrelation times) and finite-size (scaling with system size). i=1

57 Outline 1 Calculation of superfluid fraction: finite and macroscopic systems 2 Winding number: ergodicity. Worm algorithm. Grand Canonical ensemble 3 Fermion sign problem 4 Comparison of Fermi/Bose statistics: superfluidity 5 Numerical issues of PIMC Improved high-temperature action Effective pair potential Thermodynamic averages 6 Summary

58 Summary PIMC allows for first-principle simulations of interacting quantum particles. Many-body correlations can be treated at any accuracy. Problems remain to be solved: Fermion sign problem Limitations to several hundred particles due to large computational demands Efficient simulations of spin and magnetic effects

59 References R.P. Feynman and A.R. Hibbs, Quantum Mechanics and Path Integrals, McGraw Hill, New York H. Kleinert, Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics, Statistics and Polymer Physics, World Scientific, Second edition, D.M. Ceperley, Path Integrals in the Theory of Condensed Helium, Rev. Mod. Phys. 67, 279 (1995). D.M. Ceperley, Microscopic simulations in physics, Rev. Mod. Phys. 71, 438 (1999) David P. Landau and K. Binder, A Guide to Monte Carlo Simulations in Statistical Physics. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, A. Filinov and M. Bonitz, First-principle Approaches to Correlated Quantum Systems, p in Introduction to Computational Methods in Many-Body Physics, M. Bonitz and D. Semkat (Eds.), Rinton Press, Princeton, 2006