Why Open Access??? Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 1

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1 Why Open Access??? In the traditional publishing model, readers have limited access to scientific papers; authors do not have copyright for their own papers, and cannot post their papers on their own websites, which presents a significant barrier to the sharing of knowledge, as well as being unfair to authors. Open access can overcome the drawbacks of the traditional publishing model and help scholars build on the findings of their colleagues without restriction Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 1

2 ASIAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING International Standard Serial Number: X (Print) International Standard Serial Number: (Online) ICV 5.20; SJIF 2.607; UIF Established: Review Process: Double blind peer-review Volume 3, Number 3/2014 (Seventh Issue) Published by Asian Business Consortium Copyright Reproduction in any form or by any means of any part of this production requires the written permission of the publishers. We are working closely with many other major databases to get AJASE indexed, including AcademicOne, EBSCO, EI Compendex, CAS, ProQuest, Ulrich s, EBSCO, Scopus, and DOAJ. We will gradually publish the index information of the journal and try to have a high impact factor for AJASE. All communication should be addressed to the Managing Editor, AJASE abcjournals@gmail.com Asian Business Consortium Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 2

3 Consulting Editor EDITORIAL BOARD Editor-in-chief Dr. Asma Ahmad Shariff Center for Foundation Studies in Science, University of Malaya, Malaysia Managing Editor Dr. Alim Al Ayub Ahmed Executive Vice President, Asian Business Consortium Dr. Md. Amin Uddin Mridha King Saud University, Saudi Arabia (Plant Production) Dr. Bensafi Abd-El-Hamid Abou Bekr Belkaid University of Tlemcen, Algeria (Chemical Engineering & Polymer Chemistry) Dr. Iqbal Hossain ASA University Bamgladesh, Bangladesh (Statistics) Dr. Vinai K. Singh Raj Kumar Goel Engineering College, INDIA (Bio mathematics & Remedial Mathematics) Dr. Shahzad Ali Khan Quaid-e-Azam University, Pakistan (Health Systems & Policy) Dr. Hasan Mahmud Reza North South University, Bangladesh (Pharmacy) Dr Pankaj Indus International University, India (Mathematics) Dr. Mohammad Anwar Hossain Bangladesh Agricultural University, Bangladesh (Genetics & Plant Breeding) Dr. Gulzar A. Khuwaja King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia (Computer Engineering) Dr. Halenar Igor Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovakia (Architecture) Dr. Mohammad Hadi Dehghani Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran (Environmental Toxicology & Nanotechnology) Dr. Suresh B. Rana University of Oklahoma, USA (Medical Physics) Dr. Osman Goni Talukdar Varendra University, Bangladesh (Theoretical Physics) Dr. Lutfar Rahman Rajshahi University Bangladesh (Mathematics) Dr. Vuda Sreenivasarao Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia (Electrical Engineering) Dr. Mojtaba Moradi University of Guilan, Iran (Stochastic Processes) Dr. Arun Kumar Gupta University of Roorkee, India (Computer Programing) Dr Sudhir K Samantaray Panjab University, India (Psychology) Dr. M. Abul Kalam Azad Rajshahi University, Bangladesh (Applied Mathematics) Dr. Md. Fazlul Babi University Sains Malaysia (USM), Malaysia (Material Science) Dr. Mohammad Ali Shariati Isfahan University of Technology, Iran (Food Science and Technology) Dr. Nguyen Thanh Hao Industrial University of HoChiMinh City, HoChiMinh, Vietnam (Heat and Refrigeration) The Editorial Board assumes no responsibility for the content of the published articles. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 3

4 AJASE adopt a blinded review policy. Authors are blind to reviewers. Typically, the review period is within 6 weeks. If authors do not receive a decision letter by in 8 weeks after the submission, the corresponding author may send an to inquire the status of their submission. If you need a shorter review period due to special circumstances, you may request such along with your explanation of the situation by ; however, AJASE cannot guarantee granting the request because high quality judgment of scientific work in short time is a challenge. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 4

5 Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering Blind Peer-Reviewed Journal Volume 3, Number 3/2014 (Seventh Issue) Contents 1. Generating a Random Dynamical System Salah H. Abid, Ihsan J. Kadhim 2. The Effect of Gamma Irradiation on the Energy Gap of Polyanniline Thin Films Prepared by Non-thermal Plasma Jet Asia H. Al-Mashhadani, Hamma R. Humud, ThikraKh. Aubais Preparation of Silver Nanoparticles by Exploding Wire in Different Liquids Hammad R. Humud, Ahmed S. Wasfi, Aqieel M. Makia 4. Extraction, Compositional and Physicochemical Characteristics of Cashew (Anarcadium occidentale) Nuts Reject Oil Aremu M.O, Akinwumi O.D 5. Estimation of Groundwater Recharge Using Water Balance Model Coupled with Base flow Separation in Bulbul River Catchment of Gilgel-Gibe River Basin, Ethiopia A.Shimelis, O. Megerssa, A. Fantahun 6. Using Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy Technique To Identify The (Low-Carbon Steel) In The Industrial Alloy Mohammed S.Mahdi, Alaa H. Ali, Mohanad H. Hussein 7. Measuring effectiveness of learning chatbot systems on Student s learning outcome and memory retention Suhni Abbasi, Hameedullah Kazi 8. Design Simulation & Study of a Current Mirror act as a Current Regulator by enhancement type MOSFET Md. Rakibul Hasan, Sardar Masud Rana, Md. Anzan-Uz-Zaman, Md. Nasrul Haque Mia, Samioul Hasan Talukder, Mahabubl Hoq, Mahamudul Hasan Call for Papers - Volume 3, Number 4/2014 (8 th Issue) Asian Business Consortium Publish Online and Print Version Both Online Link: ISSN Online: Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 5

6 Asian Business Consortium is a self supporting organization and does not receive funding from any institution/government. Hence, the operation of the journal is solely financed by the processing fees received from authors. The processing fees are required to meet operations expenses such as employee salaries, internet services, electricity etc. Being an Open Access Journal, AJASE does not receive payment for online subscription as the journals are freely accessible over the internet. It costs money to produce a peerreviewed, edited, and formatted article that is ready for online and print publication, and to host it on a server that is freely accessible without barriers around the clock. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 6

7 Generating a Random Dynamical System Salah H. Abid 1, & Ihsan J. Kadhim 2 1 Professor, Mathematics Department, Al-Mustansirya University, Iraq 2 Mathematics Department, University of Al-Qadysia, Iraq ARTICLE INFO Volume 3 Number 3/2014 Issue 7 DOI: /ajase/2014/v3i7/53570 Received: Mar 25, 2014 Accepted: Apr 14, 2014 Revised: Apr 27, 2014 Published: August 10, for correspondence: abidsalah@gmail.com ABSTRACT In this paper we shall create a new random dynamical system from old one. One of the most important of them, is the product of two random dynamical systems, which is also random dynamical system. This technique will be very important to detailed study of the random dynamical system. Key words: Dynamical system, Noise, Topological space, Probability space, Semi group Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None declared. How to Cite: Abid SH and Kadhim IJ Generating a Random Dynamical System Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, 3, Available at: This article is is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. Attribution-NonCommercial (CC BY-NC) license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon work non-commercially, and although the new works must also acknowledge & be non-commercial. INTRODUCTION R andom dynamical systems arise in the modeling of many phenomena in physics, biology, economics, climatology, etc., and the random effects often reflect intrinsic properties of these phenomena rather than just to compensate for the defects in deterministic models. The history of study of random dynamical systems goes back to Ulam and von Neumann in 1945 [11] and it has flourished since the 1980s due to the discovery that the solutions of stochastic ordinary differential equations yield a cocycle over a metric dynamical system which models randomness, i.e. a random dynamical system. Through this paper G denote a topological group, (Ω, F, P) a probability space and X a topological space or (Polish) metric space. Let (X, τ) be a topological space. The σ algebra generated by the topology τ is called Borel σ algebra[3-6,8]and shall denoted by B X ; sets in it are called Borel sets. As a Structure of the paper, In section 2 (Preliminary) we state some definitions and theorems from Measure Theory, Ergodic Theory and Topological Group, that are need in this paper. In section 3 we sate the definition of Random Dynamical System. In section 4 Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 7

8 (Induced Random Dynamical Systems) we introduce a new random dynamical from old one. PRELIMINARY results about induced In this section we sate some definitions and theorems that are need in our paper. Definition 2.1 [10,11,15] A function f from a topological space X to an other topological space Y is said to be continuous if the inverse image of every open set in X under f is open Y. And is said to be homeomorphism if f is bijective and f, f 1 are continuous. Also f is said to be open if the image under f of every open set in X is open in Y. Definition2.2.[3-6,8] Let F be a collection of subsets of a set Ω. Then F is called a field ( the term algebra is also used) if Ω F and F is closed under complementation and finite union. If the " closed under finite union" replaced by " closed under countable union", F is called σ filed (the term σ algebra is also used). If F is σ filed, then the pair (Ω, F) is called measurable space and the sets of F are called measurable sets. Theorem2.2.[3-6]. Let be a collection of subsets of a set Ω. Then there exists a smallest σ filedf containing. We say that F is the σ filed generated by and write F = σ( ) and is called a generator for F. Remarks2.3. (1) A generator is not unique. (2) If 1 σ( 2 ) and 2 σ( 1 ), thenσ( 1 ) = σ( 2 ). Theorem2.4.[3-6]. Let (Ξ, F ) be a measurable space. If f: Ω Ξ be any function, then the collection F {f 1 F : F F }is a σ filed on Ω and consequently (Ω, F) is a measurable space. The σ filed F is called σ filed induced byf. Corollary2.5.[3-6] Let (Ω, F) be a measurable space and Ω Ω, not necessarily measurable subsets. Consider the inclusion map i: Ω Ω where ω ω Ω. The σ filed induced by i is given by F = {Ω F: F Ω }, called the trace σ filed on Ω. If Ω F, then F = {F F: F Ω }. Theorem2.6.[3-6] Let f: Ω Ξ, and let be a class of subsets of Ξ. Then σ f 1 = f 1 σ, where f 1 = {f 1 A : A }. Definition2.7.[3-6] A measure on a σ filedf is non-negative, extended real-valued function μ on F such that whenever A 1, A 2, form a finite or countably infinite collection of disjoint sets in F, we have, μ n A n = n μ(a n ). If μ Ω = 1, μ is called a probability measure. Definition2.8.[3-6] A measure space is a triple (Ω, F, μ) where Ω is a set, F is a σ filed of subsets of Ω, and μ is a measure on F. If μ is a probability measure, (Ω, F, μ) is called a probability space. We shall denote to the probability space by (Ω, F, P). Definition2.9.[3-6] Let (X, τ) be a topological space. The σ filed generated by the topology τ is called Borel σ filed; sets in it are called Borel sets. Definition2.10.[3-6]Let (Ω 1, F 1 ) and (Ω 2, F 2 ) be two measurable spaces. A function f: Ω 1 Ω 2 is said to be F 1, F 2 measurable if f 1 (A) F 1 for each A F 2. Proposition2.11.[3-6]. (a) It is sufficient that f 1 (A) F 1 for each A, where is a class of subsets of Ω 2, such that σ = F 2. (b) Theinverse of a bijective measurable function is also measurable. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 8

9 Definition2.12.[3-6] If Ω, F is measurable space and f: Ω R n ( or R n ), f is said to be Borel measurable [ on Ω, F ] if f is F, B(R n ) measurable. If Ω is a Borel subset of R k (or R k ) and we use the term " Borel measurable," we always assume that F = B. Definition2.13.[3-6] A continuous map f: R k R n is Borel measurable; if is class of open subsets of R n, then f 1 (A) is open, hence belongs to B(R k ) for each A. If Ω, F, μ is a measure space the terminology " is a Borel measurable on Ω, F, μ " will mean that f is Borel measurable on Ω, F and μ is a measure on F. Theorem2.14.[3-6] A composition of measurable functions is measurable; specifically if f 1 : Ω 1, F 1 Ω 2, F 2 and f 2 : Ω 2, F 2 Ω 3, F 3 are measurable, then so is f 2 f 1 : Ω 1, F 1 Ω 3, F 3. Definition 2.15[3-6] The produce σ algebra F on Ω 1 Ω 2 is the σ algebragenerated by rectangles of the forma 1 A 2, with A i F i for i = 1,2. We can then define the product measure P P 1 P 2 on Ω 1 Ω 2. Theorem 2.16.[3-6] Let (Ω 1, F 1, P 1 ) and(ω 2, F 2, P 2 )be two probability spaces. Thenthere exists a unique probability measure P on Ω 1 Ω 2 equipped with the product σ algebra F,such that for all A 1 F 1 and A 2 F 2, we have P A 1 A 2 P 1 P 2 A 1 A 2 P 1 A 1 P 2 (A 2 ). Definition 2.17.[12] A subgroup H is normal in the group G if gh = Hg for every g G. Definition 2.18.[12] A function f from a group G to an other group G is said to be homomorphism if f g = f g f() for every g, G,and is said to be isomorphism if it is bijective and homomorphism. Theorem [12]. If H is a normal subgroup of the groupg, then the system G/H form a group, known as the quotient group of G by H. Theorem2.20[1,7,9]Let G be a topological group and H be a normal subgroup of G. Let G/H be the quotient space, endowed with the quotient topology, and nat H be the natural map from G intog/h. Then (1) nat H is onto;(2) nat H is continuous;(3) nat H is open and (4) nat H homomorphism. Definition 2.21[1,7,9]A topological group G is said to be locallycompact if there exists a relatively compact neighborhood of the identity element e of G. Theorem 2.22[1,7,8,9]Let Λ be an index set. For each λ Λ, let G λ be a topological group. Then G λ Λ G λ, endowed with the product topology, is a topological group. Theorem 2.23[1,7,8,9]Let G λ Λ G λ be the direct product of topological groups, endowed with the product topology. Then G is locally compact if all G λ are compact topological groups except for a finite number of λ i (1 i n), say, and if for every those λ i is a locally compact topological groups. Definition2.24[1,7,8,9] A Haar measure is a Borel measure μ on a locally compact topological group G, such that (a) μ U > 0 for every non-empty Borel open set U, and (b) μ ge = μ E for every Borel set E. Theorem2.25[1,7,8,9] In every locally compact topological group, there exists at least one regular Haar measure. Note.Up to now all topological groups are locally compact with Haar measure. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 9

10 RANDOM DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS In this section we sate the definition of random dynamical system [5]. Also we introduce some new concepts that are need in section 3. Definition3.1.[2]The 4-tuple (Ω, F, P, θ) is called a model of the noise or a metric dynamical system if (Ω, F, P) is a probability space and θ: G Ω Ω is B G F,F measurable, θe,ω=idω, θg q,ω=θ(g,θq,ω) and P(θg,F)=P(F) for every F F and every g G where G is a measurable group. Definition3.2.[2]A continuous random dynamical system (RDS), shortly denote φonx over a topological dynamical system (Ω, F, P, θ) is a mapping φ: G Ω X X,(g, ω, x) φ(g, ω, x) which is B G F B(X), B(X) measurable and satisfies, for P a.e. ω Ω, (i) φ(e, ω, ) is the identity on X; (ii) φ g q, ω, = φ(g, θ q, ω, φ q, ω, ); (iii) φ g, ω, : X X is continuous for all g G. Where X is a topological space and G is a locally compact topological group with Haar measure. Random systems are generated by systems of differential equations with random stationary coefficients or with a white noise. We de not assume the maps φ(g, ω, ) to be invertible a priori. By the cocycle property, φ(g, ω) is automatically invertible (for all g G and for P almost all ω) with φ(g, ω, ) 1=φ(g 1,θg,ω, ) for g G. In the following we define " fiber preserving action" and the map that "acts constantly" given in [12] on a metric dynamical systems. Definition3.3. The action of the metric dynamical system θ is said to be a fiber preserving action with respect to surjective measurable mapping ξ of a measurable space Ω onto the measurable space Ξ if the following condition satisfies : if ξ ω 1 = ξ ω 2, then ξ θ(g, ω 1 ) = ξ θ(g, ω 2 ) for every ω 1, ω 2 Ω and g G. Definition3.4. Let θ be a metric random dynamical system, H be a locally compact topological group and α: G H be a surjective map. Then α 1 () is said to be acts constantly on every point of Ω if θ g 1, ω = θ g 2, ω for every g 1, g 2 α 1 () and ω Ω. GENERATING RANDOM DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS In this section we create new random dynamical systems from the other one. This is an important tools in study the random dynamical systems. Theorem4.1. Let (θ, φ) be a random dynamical system, H be a locally compact topological group,ξ be measurable space,φ: X Yα: G H be surjective open continuous maps, ξ: Ω Ξ be surjective measurable function. If α 1 () is acts constantly on every point of X and θ is fiber preserving action with respect to ξ, then (σ, ψ) is random dynamical system where (1) (Ξ, Σ, Q) is probability space with Q: Σ [0,1] defined by Q B P(ξ 1 B ) for every B Σ. (2) The action σ: H Ξ Ξ is defined by σ, π ξ(θ g, ω ) for every, π H Ξ. (3)The mapping ψ: H Ξ Y Y is defined by Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 10

11 ψ, π, y Φ(φ g, ω, x ) for every, π, y H Ξ Y. Proof. It is easy to see that the triple (Ξ, Σ, Q) is probability space. Now, we need to show that σ group action preserved the probability. First, note that σ is well define. For, let ω 1, ω 2 ξ 1 (π) and g 1, g 2 α 1 (). Since α 1 () is acts constantly on every point of Ω, then ξ θ g 1, ω 1 = ξ θ g 2, ω 1.(1) Also, since θ is fiber preserving action with respect to ξ, then ξ θ g 2, ω 1 = ξ θ g 2, ω 2..(2) From (1) and (2) we get σ, π = ξ θ g 1, ω 1 = ξ θ g 2, ω 2. Thus σ is well define. Second,Second, since the composition of two measurable function is measurable, then σ is B H Σ, Σ measurable. Now, let e be the identity element of, e be the identity element of H, π Ξ and ω ξ 1 (π), then σ e, π = ξ θ e, ω = ξ ω = π. To show that σ is associative. Let 1, 2 H, π Ξ, g 1 α 1 ( 1 ), g 2 α 1 ( 2 ), and ω ξ 1 (π).then σ 1, σ 2, π = σ 1, ξ(θ g 2, ω ) = ξ(θ g 1, θ g 2, ω ) = ξ(θ g 1 g 2, ω ) = σ α(g 1 g 2 ), ξ(ω) = σ 1 2, ξ(ω). To show that σ is preserved the probability. Let B be the measurable subset of Ξ then ξ 1 B is measurable subset of Ω. From the fact that σ, π ξ(θ g, ω ), where ω ξ 1(π), g α 1() we have ξ 1σ,π=θg,ω. Thus Q σ, B = P ξ 1 σ, B = P θ g, ξ 1 B = P ξ 1 B = Q B. Thus σ is preserved the probability. Thus σ is metric dynamical system. Now, we need to show that the mapping ψ: H Ξ Y Y is defined by ψ, π, y Φ(φ g, ω, x ) for every, π, y H Ξ Yis cocycle. For x Φ 1 y and ω ξ 1 (π),we have ψ e, π, y = Φ φ e, ω, x = Φ x = y. Let 1, 2 H, π Ξ, x Φ 1 (y), g 1 α 1 ( 1 ), g 2 α 1 ( 2 ), and ω ξ 1 (π).then ψ 1, σ 2, π, ψ 2, π, y = ψ 1, σ 2, π, Φ(φ g 2, ω, x ) = Φ g 1, θ g 2, ω, Φ(φ g 2, ω, x ) = Φ φ(g 1 g 2, ω, x ) = ψ( 1 2, π, y). Finally, we need to show that ψ., π, : Y Y is continuous for all H. If, π, y H Ξ Y, then ψ, π, y Y. Let W be a neighborhood of ψ, π, y in Y. We have ψ, π, y Φ(φ g, ω, x ) where Φ 1 (y), g α 1 () and ω ξ 1 (π). Since Φ is continuous, there exists a neighborhood W of φ g, ω, x such that Φ(W ) W. Since φ is continuous, there exist neighborhoods U of x and V of g such that φ V Ω U W. If U = Φ(U )and V = α (V ) then ψ V Ξ U Φ(φ V Ω U ) Φ(W ) W. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 11

12 Thus ψ is continuous. Therefore (σ, ψ) is random dynamical system. Corollary4.2. Let (θ, φ) be a random dynamical system, S be a subgroup of G, H be a topological group and (Ω, F) be a measurable space. If α: G H be a surjective continuous open homomorphism such that every fiber with respect to α acts constantly on every point of X, then (α M, X, Ω, θ 1, φ 1 ) is random dynamical system. Proof. Define θ 1 : α(m) Ω Ω by θ 1 α m, ω θ(m, ω) such definition is not welldefine unless α acts constantly on every points of fiber α 1 (α m ). Define φ 1 : α(m) Ω X X by φ 1 α m, ω, x φ(m, ω, x). Suppose that Φ: X X and ξ: Ω Ω be the identity maps. Then by above theorem we get the result. Corollary4.3. Let (θ, φ) be a random dynamical system, Y be a topological space. If Φ: X Y be a surjective continuous open map, ξ: Ω Ξ be surjective measurable function and (θ, φ) is a fiber preserving with respect to (ξ, Φ), then (G, Y, Ξ, θ 1, φ 1 ) is random dynamical system. Proof. Define θ 1 : G Ξ Ξ by θ 1 g, π θ(g, ω), where ω ξ 1 (π). This definition is well- define since θ is fiber preserving with respect to ξ. Also, define φ 1 : G Ξ Y Ξ by φ 1 g, π, y φ(g, ω, x), where ω ξ 1 (π) and x Φ 1 (y) This definition is well- define since φ is fiber preserving with respect to Φ. Consider α: G G as the identity function in above theorem we get the result. Corollary4.4. Let (θ, φ) be a random dynamical system, H be a normal subgroup of G. If every fiber with respect to nat H acts constantly on every point of X, then (G/H, X, Ω, θ 1, φ 1 ) is random dynamical system. Proof. This follows from Theorem(2.17) and Corollary(4.4). Corollary4.5. Let (θ, φ) be a random dynamical system, S be a subgroup of G and H be a subgroup of G has action which is acts constantly on every point of X, then (S H, X, Ω, θ 1, φ 1 ) is random dynamical system. Proof. Since S H is a subgroup of G and H is a normal subgroup of S H, then the natural map nat S H : S H S H/H satisfy the required properties. Corollary4.6. Let (θ, φ) be a random dynamical system, S be a subgroup of G and H be a subgroup of G has action which is acts constantly on every point of X, then (S/S H, X, Ω, θ 1, φ 1 ) is random dynamical system. Proof. Since S H is a normal subgroup of S satisfy the required properties of Theorem(4.1). Corollary4.7. Let (θ, φ) be a random dynamical system, S and H be normal subgroups G such that H S and S has action which is acts constantly on every point of X, then ((G/H )/(S/H), X, Ω, θ 1, φ 1 ) and (G/S, X, Ω, θ 2, φ 2 ) random dynamical systems. Proof. Clear. Theorem4.8. Let (θ, φ) be a random dynamical system. Let Φ: X X be a homeomorphism and ξ: Ω Ω be a bijective measurable function. Then (σ, ψ) is random dynamical system, where σ: G Ω Ω defined by σ g, ω ξ 1 (θ(g, ξ ω ) and ψ: G Ω X X defined by ψ g, ω, x Φ 1 (φ(g, ω, Φ x ). Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 12

13 Proof. First we need to construct a metric dynamical system. Since (Ω, F, P) is a probability space, then we can define a new probability space as follows: Define Q: F [0,1] as follows Q A P(ξ A ). It is easy to see that Q is well-define and it is probability function and consequently (Ω, F, Q) is probability space. Since ξbe a bijective measurable function, then so is its inverse ξ 1. But the composition of two measurable functions is measurable, then σis also measurable. Now, let e be the identity element of the group G and ω Ω. Then σ e, ω = ξ 1 (θ(e, ξ ω ) = ξ 1 ξ ω = ω. Let g 1, g 2 G and ω Ω. Then σ g 1, σ g 2, ω = σ g 1, ξ 1 (θ(g 2, ξ ω ) = ξ 1 (θ g 1, ξ(ξ 1 (θ(g 2, ξ ω ) ))) = ξ 1 (θ g 1, θ(g 2, ξ ω ) ) = ξ 1 θ g 1 g 2, ξ ω = σ g 1 g 2, ω. To show that σ preserved the probability, let A F, then Q σ g, A = P(ξ ξ 1 (θ(g, ξ A ) ) = P(θ(g, ξ A )) = P ξ A = Q(A). Now, Let g 1, g 2 G, ω Ω and x X. Then ψ g 1, σ g2 ω, ψ(g 2, ω, x) = ψ g 1, σ g2 ω, Φ 1 (φ(g 2, ω, Φ x ) = ψ g 1, ω, x where x = Φ 1 (φ(g 2, ω, Φ x ) and ω = θ g2 ω. = Φ 1 (φ g 1, ω, Φ x ) = Φ 1 (φ g 1, θ g2 ω, φ(g 2, ω, Φ x ) = Φ 1 (φ g 1 g 2, ω, Φ x ) = ψ g 1 g 2, ω, x. Finally, since φ and Φ are continuous, then so is ψ. Thus (σ, ψ) is random dynamical system. Theorem4.9. If G 1, Ω 1, X, θ 1, φ 1, (G 2, Ω 2, Y, θ 2, φ 2 )are two random dynamical systems, then their product is a random dynamical system. Proof. Wedefine the product of the given dynamical systems as follows: G 1 G 2, Ω 1 Ω 2, X Y, θ 1 θ 2, φ 1 φ 2, where P P 1 P 2 : F 1 F 2 [0,1] defined by P A 1 A 2 P 1 P 2 A 1 A 2 P 1 A 1 P 2 (A 2 ), θ θ 1 θ 2 : G 1 G 2 Ω 1 Ω 2 : Ω 1 Ω 2 define by θ g, q, ω, π (θ 1 g, ω, θ 2 q, π ), and φ φ 1 φ 2 : G 1 G 2 Ω 1 Ω 2 X Y X Y, defined by φ g, q, ω, π, x, y (φ 1 g, ω, x, φ 2 q, π, y ). Proof. First, the triple (Ω 1 Ω 2, F 1 F 2, P 1 P 2 ) is probability space by Theorem2.16. To show that θ is a metric dynamical system. Note that by Theorems (2.22) and (2.23) we get G 1 G 2 is locally compact topological groups. And a consequence of Theorem 2.25 there exists at least one regular Haar measure on G 1 G 2. (i) θ e, e, ω, π = θ 1 e, ω, θ 2 e, π = ω, π = Id Ω1 Ω 2. (ii) θ g, q g, q, ω, π = θ g g, q q, ω, π Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 13

14 = θ 1 g g, ω, θ 2 q q, π = θ 1 g, θ 1 (g, ω), θ 2 q, θ 2 (q, π ) = θ g, q, θ 1 (g, ω), θ 2 (q, π ) = θ g, q, θ (g, q ), (ω, π ). (iii) Since B G 1 F 1 B G 2 F 2 = B G 1 G 2 F 1 F 2, then θ is B G 1 G 2 F 1 F 2, F 1 F 2 measurable. (iv) Let P P 1 P 2, then P θ(, A) = P 1 θ 1 g, A 1 P 2 (θ 2 q, A 2 ) = P 1 A 1 P 2 A 2 = P(A). Then θ is a metric dynamical system. Now, to show that φ is cocycle. (i') φ e, ω, x = φ e, e, ω, π, x, y. = (φ 1 e, ω, x, φ 2 e, π, y ) = x, y = id X Y. (ii') φ g, θ q ω, φ, ω, x = φ g, θ ω, (φ 1 g, ω, x, φ 2 q, π, y ) = φ 1 g, θ 1 g, ω, φ 1 g, ω, x, φ 2 q, θ 2 q, π, φ 2 q, π, y = φ 1 g g, ω, x, φ 2 q q, π, y = φ g, ω, x. (iii') Since φ 1 and φ 2 are continuous, then so is their product φ 1 φ 2. Thus from theabove discussion we get that the pair (θ, φ) form a random dynamical system and this complete the proof. Remark4.10. Let (θ, φ) be a random dynamical system and let G φ φ g, ω : (g, ω) G Ω, then G φ is a group. The closure of G φ in function space X X with point wise converge topology is semigroup and which is denoted by E G φ, i.e., E φ g, ω : (g, ω) G Ω. Proposition4.11. If (θ, φ) is a random dynamical system, then (E, ) is semigroup. Proof. Since G φ is non-empty, then so is E. Now, let f, E, then there exist nets f α, α G φ such that f α f and α. Then α f α α f. Since α is homeomorphism, then α f is a net in E and α f f and consequently f E. Since " " is always associative, then E is semigroup. Theorem4.12. If (θ, φ) is a random dynamical system, then so is (θ, ψ), where ψ: G Ω E E defined by ψ g, ω, f φ(g, ω) f, and E be the semigroup defined in Remark Proof. It is sufficient to see that ψ: G Ω E E is cocycle. Let ebe the identity element of the groupg, then ψ e, ω, f = φ e, ω f. Since φ e, ω f x = φ e, ω, f x = f(x), then φ e, ω f = f, i.e., ψ e, ω, f = f. Now, ψ g, θ ω, ψ, ω, f = ψ g, θ ω, φ, ω f = ψ g, θ ω, f, f φ, ω f = φ g, θ ω f Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 14

15 = φ g, θ ω φ, ω f = φ g, ω f = ψ g, ω, f. Finally, we need to show that ψ, ω, : G E E is continuous. Let g α and f α be two nets in G and E repectively. Then f α (x) be a net in X. Thus (g α, f α x ) be a net in G X. Since φ, ω, : G X X is continuous, then φ g α, ω, f α x φ g, ω, f(x) for every x X. Hence φ g α, ω f α φ g, ω f. Therefore ψ g α, ω, f α ψ g, ω, f. This means that ψ, ω, : G E E is continuous. Thusψ: G Ω E E is cocycle and consequently (θ, ψ) is a random dynamical system. REFERENCES A. Arhangel'skii, and M.Tkachenko," Topological Groups and Related Struct-ures", Atlantis Press/ World Scientific, (2008). [1] J.J. Rotman, " Advanced Modern Algebra", Prentice Hall; 2nd edition (2003). [2] J.L.Kelley," General Topology", Springer-Verlag New York Beelin (1955). [3] J.R. Munkres, " Topology", Prentice Hall, upper saddle Rever (2000). [4] L. Arnold, " Random Dynamical Systems", Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg (1998). [5] P. Billingsley, " Probability and Measure" John Wiley and Sons,Inc.(1986). [6] P. R.Halmos, " Measure Theory", Springer-Verlag New York Inc.(1974). [7] R.B. Ash," Probability and Measure Theory", Academic Press, Inc. New York.(1978). [8] R.B. Ash,"Real Analysis and Probability", Academic Press,Inc. NewYork.(2000). [9] R.M. Dudley,"Real Analysis and Probability", Cambridge University Press (2004). [10] S. Warner, " Topological Fields", Leopoldo Nachbin (1989). [12] S.M. Ulam and J. von Neumann, Random ergodic theorems, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 51 (1945). [11] S.Willard," General Topology", Addison-Westy Pub.co., Inc.(1970). [13] T. Husain,"Introduction totopological groups", W.B. Saunders Company Philadelphia And London (1966). [14] W.H. Gottschalk, and G.A.Hedlund, "Topological Dynamics", Amer, Math, Soci(1955). [15] Submit your next manuscript at- ABC Journals is a unique forum to offer open access to all of its articles. Now ABC Journal s portfolio is over ten journals, which publish both online and in print. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 15

16 The Effect of Gamma Irradiation on the Energy Gap of Polyanniline Thin Films Prepared by Non-thermal Plasma Jet Asia H. Al-Mashhadani, Hamma R. Humud, ThikraKh. Aubais Department of Physics, College of Science, University of Baghdad, Iraq ARTICLE INFO Volume 3 Number 3/2014 Issue 7 DOI: /ajase/2014/v3i7/53571 Received: Apr 28, 2014 Accepted: Jun 18, 2014 Revised: Jun 22, 2014 Published: August 10, for correspondence: assia @yahoo.com ABSTRACT In this paper, we present a new and directmethod to prepare nanostructured polyaniline thin filmson any surface. This method was developed to improve the mechanical and adherence properties of polyaniline devices used as ionization radiation sensors. Plasma polymerized organic thin films have received a great deal of interest because of their unique characteristics such as: pinhole-free, structurally cross-linked, insoluble and highly adhered. In this work, nanostructures polyaniline (PANI) thin films were prepared by dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma jet polymerization technique. The UV visible absorption and infrared analysis confirm that a polyanilineis obtained. Optical properties reveal the band gap of the PANI thin film at room temperature is 2.56 ev. Preliminary gamma radiation interaction with the polyaniline shows that the thin film of polyanilineexhibits a linear response that canbe used as a dosimeter for the dose range from 0 to Gy. Key words: Polyaniline thin films, Gamma irradiation, Non-thermal plasma jet Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None declared How to Cite: Al-Mashhadani AH, Humud HR and Aubais T The Effect of Gamma Irradiation on the Energy Gap of Polyanniline Thin Films Prepared by Non-thermal Plasma Jet Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, 3, Available at: This article is is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. Attribution-NonCommercial (CC BY-NC) license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon work non-commercially, and although the new works must also acknowledge & be non-commercial. INTRODUCTION olyanilin is one of the most investigated conducting polymers. Due to its high chemical and thermal stability and the ease of polymerization, together with the Prelative low cost of production it alsohas the potential of many technological Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 16

17 applications [9]. But the studies of polyaniline subjected to ionizing radiation have not yet attracted application.the present work is a study of the γ-radiation induced changes in physical properties of nanocrystallinepolyaniline thin film, deposited onto a glass substrate. Polyaniline film was deposited by plasma polymerization technique includes plasma (state) polymerization which is one of the most powerful methods for surface modification of polymeric materials. Plasma polymerization can be defined as the formation of polymeric materials under the influence of plasma [4]. Solid deposits from organic compounds formed in a plasma early as in 1874 [8,1]. Photographic films and thermoluminescent materials are largely used for individual dosimetry of ionization radiation because they present several advantages compared with other devices. However, these passive dosimeters do not provide a direct reading of the dose since they need a further treatment after the irradiation to yield the information about the dose. The present stage of the development of microelectronic technologies makes it possible to design compact, low-power, multifunctional measurement systems with relatively high reliability and immunity to environmental factors [2]. Thus, it has become possible to design a new generation of active dosimeters called electronic personal dosimeters (EPDs). One of the basic problems faced by EPDs designers is the selection of a suitable radiation detector. The development of polymers has contributed to the development of new types of radiation detectors, which canbe used for in situ measurements. Among several candidate polymers, polyaniline stands out because its electrical and optical properties can be changed by oxidation of the main chain or protonation of imine nitrogen of the polymer chain. These two doping processes open up a variety of possibilities to design new detector devices. Another positive aspect is the fact that polyaniline is very inexpensive. The effects of gamma radiation on polymers have already been investigated [10,7], and the results indicatea linear correlation of polymer conductivity with the applied dose in some cases. The radiation interaction mechanisms with the polyaniline are quite distinct. The radiation interaction is mainly an oxidation process of the main polymer chain yielding a conductivity enhancementfor leucoemeraldine and a conductivitydecrease for the emeraldine salt, whereas for thesecond case the ionization radiation induces a dopingstate in the polymer main chain structure similar tothat found in the conventional acid doping process.in this paper wepresent an alternative method to polymerize aniline by DBD plasma jet polymerization technique. Plasma polymerized organic thin films have received a great deal of interest because of their unique characteristics such as: pinhole-free, structurally cross-linked, insoluble and highly adhered. In this work, nanostructures polyaniline (PANI) thin films were prepared by dielectric barrier discharge plasma jet polymerization technique. This method is different fromthe conventional method used for polymerization [5]. Theoptical characterization of the polyanilinewas performed at room temperature and the effectof gamma irradiation ( 60 Co) up to a dose of 24kGywas analyzed. It was found that gamma radiationcauses significant variations in the aniline optical energy gap and other properties that can be used for thedevelopment of real-time radiation sensors. EXPERIMENTAL WORK Pure aniline monomer was obtained from the Chemical Department, College of Science, University of Baghdad and used as the organic precursor. Then non-equilibrium atmospheric pressure plasma is used to polymerization and deposit polyanilineas thin films on the cleaned mm glass substrate. The schematic diagram thin films deposition by plasma polymerization is shown in Fig.1 plasma jet polymerization technique consists of die Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 17

18 electric barrier discharge with high voltage of sinusoidal shape of 7.5 kv and frequency of 28 khz peak to peak. Gas mixture consisted of 2 L/min of Ar as the working gas and the monomer gas, which was vaporized by passing the Ar tube through the aniline vessel. This mixture was allowed to flow in through the inlet pipe, and the plasma was ignited by using an electric source at a fixed frequency of 28 khz. The plasma was generated downstream to the substrate which was positioned along 1 cm distance from the pipe end. Then the polyaniline films irradiated inside 60Co gamma cell (dose rate of 50 Gy/h), the dose range was between Gy. Fig. 1: Schematic diagram for non-equilibrium atmospheric pressure plasma polymerization experimental set-up [9] RESULTS AND DISCUSSION FTIR spectrophotometer was used to provides information about the chemical bonds by measuring the absorption of PANI films deposited in the range of 400 to 4000cm-1 to ensure that the prepared film was polyaniline. The FT-IR spectra were recorded by using KBr and testing sample by Shimadzu Co. FT-IR 8000 series Fourier transform. Table (1) and Figures (2) shows some vibration bands at 3445, , , ,and etc. These values are characteristic of polyaniline chain and are in agreement with theoretical predictions [12]. Fig. 2: FTIR spectra for polyaniline thin films prepared by non-thermal low temperature plasma jet at flow 2L /min, 1cm from plasma torch exit and substrate temperature 100 C Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 18

19 Table 1: F T- I R common band and peaks for PANI thin film prepared by plasma polymerization vibration Bond range (cm -1 ) Observed peaks Position for all Sample (cm -1 ) Expected vibrations N-H stretching C-H stretching of aromatic ring , 1508 C=C stretching of quinoid ring(n=q=n) C=C stretching vibration of benzenoid ring(n-b-n) , 1244 C-N stretching of primary aromatic amines C-H bending vibration Fig.3 shows the X-ray diffraction for PANI thin filmes prepared by plasma polymerization at room temperature. This figure showsthat the polyaniline thin film isan amorphous material [6] Fig.3: X-ray diffraction pattern for PANI thin film Fig.4 shows AFM images for the prepared polyaniline thin film from these images can see that the thin films surface is very soft and smooth. Table 2 shows the thin films preparation conditions and its surface properties obtained from theafm image (average grain size andaverage roughness (nm)). Table 2: Preparation conditions and AFM images information PANI thin films deposited by plasma polymerization Gas flow (L / min) Distance (cm) Substrate temperature ( ₒ C ) Average grain size (nm) Average rooghness (nm) Fig.4:AFMsurface morphology of PANI thin films deposited by plasma polymerization Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 19

20 THE OPTICAL ENERGY GAP The optical energy gap values (Eg) for PANI thin films have been determined, by plotting ( hν)2 versus( hν) with different irradiation dose are shown in Figs. (5a,b,c and d). (a) Fig (5a, b, c and d) :Optical energy gap (Eg) for polyaniline thin films prepared by non-thermal low temperature plasma jet at different irradiation dose. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 20

21 Table 3 shows the energy gap for PAIN thin films irradiated by different gammaray doses. The values of the optical energy gap decrease with the increasing of irradiation dose as shown in Fig.6. Table 3: Energy gap and absorbed doses for PAIN thin films Eg (ev) Absorbed Dose (kgy) Fig.6: Energy gap for PIN thin films before and after irradiated with different gamma doses Itis worth to mention that high energy gamma radiation interactswith the matter in three different ways i.e. photoelectric effect, Compton scattering and pair-production, which are responsible formodifications depends upon the energy of gamma ray photons. ForCo-60, it is Compton Effect that dominates. It is well known that inthe Compton Effect the momentum of the incident photon is sharedbetween inelastically scattered photon and the ejected electron,and not transferred to atom or nuclei, so, gamma ray photon remainshave sufficient energy to knock out an atom from its positionafter gamma irradiation. Micro strain, dislocation density anddistortion parameters decrease with an increase in gamma dose. PIN thin film irradiated by gamma ray may be caused to formation new bonds due to the crosslinks of polyaniline chain after irradiation [11]. The present work is attempted to study the effectof gammaradiation on thestructural properties of polyaniline thinfilms. The study of the radiation effects onpolymer will be useful for gamma ray dosimeter. CONCLUSIONS From this study, we can conclude that the optical energy gap were systematic decreasing with increasing gamma ray doses, this systematic change in optical energy gap for gamma ray can be used for measuring gamma dose. REFERENCES A.Thenard, C.R.Hebd, Seances Acad. Sci., 78 (1874) 219. [1] E. Beuvill, K.Borer, E.Chesi, E.N.M.Heijne, P.Jarron, B.Lisowski, Amplex, Nucl.Instrum.Methods, A288 (1990) [2] H. Yasuda, "Plasma Polymerization", Academic Press Inc. Orlando, FL, [4] Hammad R. Humud,ThikraKh. Aubais, Physical Sciences Research International 1,4(2013) [3] J. M.Liu, S.C.J.Yang. Chem.Soc.Chem.Commun. (1991)1529. [5] L. Tarachiwin, P.Kiattibtr, Ruangchuay, L.Sirivat, J.Schwank, Synthetic. Metals, 129 (2002) [6] Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 21

22 M. Wolszczac, J.Kroh, M.M.Abdel-Hamid, RadiatPhysChem, 45 (1995) [7] P. de Wilde, BerDtschChemGes, 7 (1874) [8] Q. Yao, L.Liu, C.Li., Polym Bull, 31 (1993) [10] Qi Yao, Limin Liu, Changjiang Li, Polymer Bulletin, 31 (1993) [9] R. G. Sonkawade, Vijay Kumar, Lalit Kumar, S.Annapoorni, S.G.Vaijapurkar, A.S.Dhaliwal, Indian Journal of Pure and Applied Physics, 48 (2010) [11] R. Kostie, D. Rakovic, I.E. Davidova and L.A. Ggribov, Phys. Rev. B,Condensed Mat., 215 (1992) 728. [12] AJASE? Publish Online and Print Version Both High quality editorial board Rigorous and rapid peer review Open Access & high citation rate Will apply for ISI track in the near future Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 22

23 Preparation of Silver Nanoparticles by Exploding Wire in Different Liquids Hammad R. Humud, Ahmed S. Wasfi, Aqieel M. Makia Department of Physics, College of Science, University of Baghdad, Iraq ARTICLE INFO Volume 3 Number 3/2014 Issue 7 DOI: /ajase/2014/v3i7/53572 Received: Apr 28, 2014 Accepted: Jun 21, 2014 Revised: Jun 27, 2014 Published: August 10, for correspondence: dr.hammad6000@yahoo.com ABSTRACT The present work, provides a simple technique for the production of silver nanoparticlesbased on the explosion of thin silver wires in different liquids (distilled water, ethylene glycol and cyclohexane),by applying 36 Volt DC to two electrodes, one of them is a thin wire and the other is a plate, and bring them to touch mechanically. The nanoparticles are characterized by X-ray diffraction and UV-Visible spectroscopy.x-ray diffraction results reveal that the nanoparticles continue to routine lattice periodicity at reduced particle sizes. The UV-Visible absorption spectrum of the liquid solution of the silver nanoparticles shows a sharp and single Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) peak centered at a wavelength around 400nm, this peak indicated the production of pure and spherical silver nanoparticles. The TEM and SEM images show that the silver nanoparticles have narrow particle size distribution ranged from nm with average particle size of 80nm. The silver nanoparticleswhich were prepared in water or ethylene glycol had no difference in their average particle size and particle size distribution, while those which were prepared in cyclohexane had smaller sizes. Keywords: Exploding wire plasma, Silver nanoparticles, Surface Plasmon resonance. Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None declared. How to Cite: Humud HR, Wasfi AS and Makia AM Preparation of Silver Nanoparticles by Exploding Wire in Different Liquids Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, 3, Available at: This article is is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. Attribution-NonCommercial (CC BY-NC) license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon work non-commercially, and although the new works must also acknowledge & be non-commercial. INTRODUCTION N anoparticles have novel physical and chemical properties [6] and they have many applications; such as optoelectronic materials, magnetic fluids, composite material, fuel cells, pigments and sensors [4,10].Silver nanoparticles can be used in many applications; such as, antimicrobial medical materials, surface Plasmon resonance Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 23

24 (SPR) sensors and conducting pastes [10,5]. Metal nanoparticles were produced by alaser beam [12], electron beam, mechanical milling [1], electrical exploding wire [9,17], chemicalvapordeposition andplasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition [13,2]. In this work the nanoparticles produced through the dominant mechanism of spark explosion which is an adaptation of the phenomena called electro-explosion of wires,where both electrodes produce the particles, while they were surrounded by liquid medium. The two electrodes melted vaporized and turned into plasma, when high current density passes through the electrodes as they just contact mechanically. The metal plasma expands with supersonic velocity creating a shock wave in the surrounding medium. Finally, nanoparticles were formed by the interaction with the liquid. The vaporized particles where condensed more efficiently in the liquid than in ambient air. Electrical explosion of wire (EEW) in gas has been applied to synthesize many kinds of nanomaterial including metals and compounds. More recently, this method has been developed to synthesize metal nanoparticles in a solution, compared with the EEW in gas; EEW in liquid has been less investigated. It has become one of promising methods for synthesis metal nanoparticles because of its simplicity, effectiveness and low cost. Synthesis of nanoparticles in liquid needs no vacuum system. In addition, nanoparticles can be synthesized in water or any arbitrary solution without impurities [18, 15, 7]. Properties of nanoparticles synthesized by EEW depend on many parameters, which include wire properties such as wire dimensions (diameter and length) and material, characteristics of the electrical circuit, and ambient medium. Among these, the ambient liquid medium is an important parameter, which is much affecting the properties of nanoparticles. In the present work we provide a simple apparatus for the production of silver nanoparticles based on the explosion of thin silver wires in different liquids and report the effects of the explosion surrounding medium on the particle sizes, and particle size distribution, and (SPR) peaks location of Ag nanoparticles. A change of the ambient medium in the explosion process presents a simple and flexible technique to modify the properties of nanoparticles [14,3,19]. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS The present work introduces a simple and efficient apparatus for the wire explosion, to produce large quantities of metallic nanoparticles. The electro-explosion of wires (EEW) is carried out in a reaction vessel of (500ml) prepared to house the twoelectrodes and the medium in which the explosion is carried out.the exploding wire is aligned to the correct geometry through the glass tube wire guide as shown in Fig.1. Hard Teflonblocks, which is an insulator as well as it can withstand the explosion conditions, were used to fix the two electrodes. The metal plate is slidingthrough two groves on the face of one block, while the wire was passed through glass tube attached to the other block which placed opposite to the previous one.the two electrodes were connected through thick copper wires to the two terminals of the 36 Vbatteries. Figure (1): A schematic diagram of the electro-exploding wire (EEW) set up; (1) thin metal wire,(2) metal plate, (3) 36 Vbatteries and (4) glass vessel. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 24

25 The electrical circuit remains open until the electrical contact is made by the thin wire when touching the plate mechanically, resulting in the wire explosion through a nonlinear process in a very short time due to high current density passes through the wire;this in turn opens up the circuit for another explosion process.ag wires of purity %; Alfa Aesar and plates (dim: 70, 40, 2mm; Purity: %; Alfa Aesar) used in the explosion. The silver wires were at diameters of 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 mm and 300mm length.many parameters can influence the particles produced by EEW. In this work, we examined the effects of wire diameter and liquid type such aswater, ethylene glycol (a polar solvent) and cyclohexane (nonpolar solvent). CHARACTERIZATION MEASUREMENTS The structural features of the samples were studied by X-ray diffraction (XRD),X-ray diffraction measurements have been done according to the (ASTM) American Society of Testing Materials cards, using MINIFLEX II Japan devicex-ray diffract meter of λ=1.54 Å from Cu-kα radiation, where few drops from the nanoparticle s suspension were dried on a glass substrate for recording X-ray diffraction. The average grain size (G.S.) can be estimated using the Scherrer s formula [11]. The surface roughness and topography of the deposited thin films are studied by TEM and SEM to confirm the nanoparticle s shape, size and particle sizedistributions. The TEM type was CM10 pw6020, from Philips-Germany. The test samples were prepared by placing a drop of suspension on a copper mesh coated with an amorphous carbon film. This process was repeated several times. The TEM carbon grids were loaded into the sample. The images were obtained at an accelerating voltage of 60 kv, with a maximum magnification of 25000x x. The diameter of nanoparticles was calculated from the following equation (taken from CM10 TEM sheet): D = d 3 (nm) (1) M 4 Where; D, d and M are nanoparticle diameter, real diameter on image and magnification of TEM respectively. UV-VIS 1800 spectrophotometer was used to measure the absorption spectrum of metallic NPs solution samples prepared at different conditions in the spectrum range ( ) nm. All spectra were measured at room-temperature in a quartz cell of a 1cm optical path. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS XRD study of Silver nanoparticles XRD was performed for the pure (bulk) silver and silver nanoparticles that obtained from exploding Ag wires with different diameters (0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 mm), in water media, ethylene glycol and cyclohexane.the diffraction pattern is shown in figures (2, 3 and 4), and the results were summarized attable (1). Part of the solid matrix, was dried and held firm for XRD studies. The indexing process of a powder diffraction pattern was done, and Miller Indices (hkl) to each peak was assigned. All Miller Indices reveal the FCC structure of Ag nanoparticles. The peaks were assigned to the diffraction from the (111), (200), (220), and (311) planes of FCC Bulk Ag. We saw, in preference, diffraction peaks of Ag NPs at crystalline plans (111), (200), (220), (311) and (222).The relative intensities of the lines have, however altered, showing re-orientation of grains following their production through the EEW method. Diffraction pattern corresponding to impurities are found to be very low. This proves that pure Ag NPs were synthesized. When comparing the diffraction pattern of Ag NPs with bulk Ag, the peak positions of the Ag NPs planes were slightly shifted to higher 2θ values. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 25

26 The average particle size of Ag nanoparticles, which were determined using Scherrer s equation, shows that silver nanoparticles produced in ethylene glycol have smaller size compared with that produced in water, and that produced in cyclohexane were smaller than that produced in ethylene glycol at the same conditions, this is because that the three media have different properties. The particle size decreased under fast explosion conditions, short plasma duration and with high-viscosity surrounding media. High viscosity was decreasing the particle size and raising the dispersion stability due to less expansion in the plasma volume. X-ray diffraction pattern for the silver nanoparticles produced in cyclohexane shows diffraction from two planes only with less intensity than that for bulk sliver, that means silver nanoparticles capped by a thick layer of cyclohexane, which preventing the appearance oflow intensity peaks.parameters that can influence the properties of nanoparticles synthesized by EEW include electrical circuit parameters; voltage, the amount of energy deposited in the wire; the properties of the exploding wire (diameter, length); sublimation of the metal; and properties of the liquid, as viscosity, thermal conductivity, polarity and others, these factors interact with each other by a complex manner. Table (2) shows some of the physical properties of liquids media used in this work. Figure (2): XRD pattern for silver nanoparticles obtained from exploding Ag wire with different diameters in water. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 26

27 Figure (3): XRD pattern for silver nanoparticles obtained from exploding Ag wire with different diameters in ethylene glycol. Figure (4): XRD pattern for silver nanoparticles obtained from exploding Ag wire with different diameters in cyclohexane. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 27

28 AgBulk Cyclohexane Ethylene glycol Water Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering Table (1): XRD peaks of silver bulk and nanoparticles obtained from explodingag wires with different diameters in water media, ethylene glycol and cyclohexane. Liquid Wirediam.D(mm) 2θ FWHM PeakInt.(A.U) (hkl) G.S.(nm) AV.G.S.(nm) (111) (200) (220) (311) (222) (111) (200) (220) (311) (222) (111) (200) (220) (311) (222) (111) (200) (220) (311) (222) (111) (200) (220) (311) (222) (111) (200) (220) (311) (222) (111) (111) (200) (111) (200) (220) (111) (200) (220) (311) (222) Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 28

29 Table (2): Liquids media physical properties Liquid Structure and Density - Dielectric Dipole Viscosity Surface tension molecular weight g/ml constant moment 10-3Pa.S 10-3J/ m2 Cyclohexane C6H Ethylene HOC2H4OH glycol Water H2O UV Visible absorption spectrum of silver nanoparticles The UV Visible absorption spectrum of thesilver nanoparticles prepared in water media is shown in figure (5-a). The typical peaks at nm, nm and nm corresponding to the characteristic surface plasmon resonance of silver nanoparticles obtained from silver exploding wires of diameter 0.2 mm, 0.3 mm and 0.4 mm respectively. The Plasmon band is slightly symmetric which indicate that the solution contains many aggregated particles, a conclusion that agrees with the electron micrograph observation of the TEM. It is well known that colloidal silver nanoparticles exhibit absorption at a wavelength from 390 to 420 nm due to Mie scattering [16] and this may not include the protecting agent, because the Mie scattering responds only to the silver metal. The plasmon bands are broad with an absorption tail in the longer wavelengths, which could be in principle due to the size distribution of the particles [8]. The absorbance intensities are 0.380, and correspond to the 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 mm exploding wire diameters respectively. Since the varying intensity of the plasmon resonance depends on the cluster size, the number of particles cannot be related linearly to the absorbance intensities. Figure (5-b) shows the UV Visible absorption spectrum of silver nanoparticles prepared in Ethylene glycol, this spectrum shows symmetric plasmon bands which indicate that the solution contains less aggregated particles, while Figure (5-c) shows less symmetric plasmon bands with absorption tails in the longer wavelengths due to the broadeningin the size distribution, this figure belong to silver nanoparticles in Cyclohexane. The red shift of the absorbance maximum for silver nanoparticles were observed from nm to nm and to nm for the surface plasmon resonance of silver nanoparticles in water resulting from 0.2 mm, 0.3 mm and 0.4 mm exploding wires respectively. In ethylene glycol and cyclohexane alsoa red shift were found of the absorbance maximum for silver nanoparticles with the increasing of nanoparticle size. When the silver nanoparticles agglomerated, the metal particles become electronically coupled, and this coupled system has a different SPR than the individual particles. For the case of a multi-nanoparticle aggregated, the Plasmon resonance will be red-shifted to a longer wavelength than the resonance of an individual nanoparticle and agglomerations is observed as peak intensity increase in the red region of the spectrum. Table (3) summarizes the results of the UV-Visible absorption spectrum of the silver nanoparticles prepared from exploding wire of different diameters in different liquids media. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 29

30 Figure (5): UV-Visible absorption spectrum of silver nanoparticles from exploded Ag wire with different diameters in:(a) water, (b) ethylene glycol, (c) cyclohexane. Table (3): The UV Visible absorption spectrum of silver nanoparticles obtained from different exploding wires diameters in different liquids media. Liquids media Diameter (mm) max(nm) Int. (a.u.) Grain Size (nm) TEM (nm) Water Ethylene glycol Cyclohexane TEM and SEM images for Silver nanoparticles In order to obtain deeper insights on the morphology and size distribution of the obtained AgNPs, the TEM analyses were employed. As one can see clearly from images of Figure (6), the Nano sized silver particles were well-formed and dispersed. The average-sized silver particles synthesized by 0.3mm exploded wire was about 65 nm with a relatively narrow distribution in water media, 64 nm in ethylene glycol and 85nm in cyclohexane media. From the images of TEM, varies sizes are observed with a range from 15-65nm and the particles have irregular shapes with slight agglomeration. Figure (7) shows SEM images for synthesized silver NPs inwater, ethylene glycol and cyclohexaneobtained by 0.3mm exploding silver wire. Fromthe images, varies sizes are observed with arange from 40-90nm; also, some particles have irregular shapes with agglomeration. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 30

31 Figure (6): TEM images for synthesized silver NPs in water, ethylene glycol and cyclohexane obtainedfrom 0.3mm exploded silver wire. Figure (7): SEM images for synthesized silver NPs in water, ethylene glycol and cyclohexane obtained from 0.3mm exploded silver wire. CONCLUSIONS Ourmeasurements confirm that silver nanoparticles have been generated by EEW technique. A change of the wire surrounding medium in the explosion process presents a simple and flexible technique to modify the properties of nanoparticles.the size of the NPs decreases with the decrease of the metal wire diameter for the three liquids used.for the same wire diameter, the NPs prepared in cyclohexanewere smaller than particles prepared in ethylene glycol and water respectively.uv Visible absorption spectrum of silver nanoparticles showed SPR absorption peak. The central peak position depends on the wire diameter and surrounding media type, in other word on particle size. SEM and TEM images showed that the synthesized NPs have an average particle size less than 100 nm with narrow participle size distribution and having spherical shapes with slight agglomerations. REFERENCES A.S. Edelstein, R. C. Cammarata, Nanomaterial s synthesis,properties and applications Institute of Physics Publishing, Bristol, [1] A.Sarkar, Hao Wang, Theda Daniels-Race, Electronic Materials Letters, 10, 2 (2014), [2] C.H. Cho, S.H. Park, Y.W. Choi and B.G.Kim, Surf. Coat. Tech., 201 (2007) [3] D.B. Sanchez, The Surface Plasmon Resonance of Supported Noble Metal Nanoparticles: Characterization, Laser Tailoring, and SERS Application, Ph.D Thesis, Madrid University (2007). *4+ E.Ju Park, Swon Lee, I. Cheol Bang, H. Wook Park, Nanoscale Research Letters, 6 (2011)223. [5] H Yasuda, T. Hirotsu, J. Polym, Sci. Polym., 16 (1978) 313. [6] J.Woo Song, D. Jin Lee, Fikret Yilmaz, S. Jik Hong, Journal of Nanomaterials, ID (2012) 1-5. [7] K Aoki, J. Chen, N. Yang, H. Nagasawa, Langmuir,19,23 (2003) [8] L,Araujo, R. Lobenberg, J.Kreuter, J. Drug Target, 6 (1999) [9] Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 31

32 M Raffi, F. Hussain, T. M. Bhatti, J. I. Akhter, A. Hameed and M. M. Hasan, J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 24 (2008) [10] M.S. Dresselhaus, Y.M. Lin, O. Rabin, G.Dresselhaus, Microscale Therm. Eng., 7, 3 (2003) [11] M.Ullmann, S. K.Friedlander, A.Schmidt-Ott, Journal of Nanoparticles Research, 4, 6 (2002) [12] S.Singh, Mohammad Ashfaq, Rohitashaw Kumar Singh, Harish C. Joshi, Anurag Srivastava, Ashutosh Sharma,Nishith Verma, New Biotechnology, 30, 6 ( 2013) [13] Vandana and P. Sen, J. Phys, Condens. Matter, 17 (2005) [14] W.Jiang and Kiyoshi Yatsui, IEEE Trans.Plasma Sci., 26 (1998) 1498.[15] W.Kleemann, Int. J. Mod. Phys., B 7 (1993) [16] WonbaekKim, Je-shin Park, Chang-yulSuh, Jong-GwanAhn, Jae-chun Lee, Journal of Alloys and Compounds,465 (2008) L4 L6. [17] Y.A. Kotov, J. Nanopart. Res., 5 (2003) 539. [18] Y.Tokoi, K.Josho, Y.M.Izuari, T.Suzuki, T.Nakayama, H.Suematsu, W.Lee, Z.Fu, K.Niihara, Materials Science and Engineering, 20 (2011) [19] AJASE adopt a blinded review policy. Authors are blind to reviewers. Typically, the review period is within 6 weeks. If authors do not receive a decision letter by in 8 weeks after the submission, the corresponding author may send an to inquire the status of their submission. If you need a shorter review period due to special circumstances, you may request such along with your explanation of the situation by ; however, AJASE cannot guarantee granting the request because high quality judgment of scientific work in short time is a challenge. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 32

33 Extraction, Compositional and Physicochemical Characteristics of Cashew (Anarcadium occidentale) Nuts Reject Oil Aremu, M.O 1 & Akinwumi, O.D 2 1 Senior Lecturer, Department of Chemical Engineering, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Nigeria 2 Department of Chemical Engineering, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Nigeria ARTICLE INFO Volume 3 Number 3/2014 Issue 7 DOI: /ajase/2014/v3i7/53573 Received: May 08, 2014 Accepted: Jun 21, 2014 Revised: Jun 26, 2014 Published: August 10, for correspondence: moaremu@lautech.edu.ng ABSTRACT Cashew nut (Anarcadium occidentale) reject is a waste material from cashew nut processing industry usually regarded as non valuable. The oil was extracted using Soxhlet and mechanical methods separately; the proximate composition and physicochemical characteristics of the oil were investigated using standard analytical methods. The mean values of various parameters for proximate composition (%) obtained were: moisture content ( ), crude protein ( ), crude fiber ( ), ether extract ( ), ash content ( ), Nitrogen free extract (24.04), tannin (1.02) and phytic acid (0.50). The oil yields are 40% and 26.66% for soxhlet and mechanical methods respectively. The results of the physicochemical properties ( the mean values), for soxhlet and mechanical extraction are: Colour (Winsor orange; yellowish), Specific gravity at 20 0 C(0.909; ), Acid value (2.24; mg KOH/g), Saponification value (212; mg KOH/g), Iodine value (50.61; mgI 2/g), Peroxide value (10.58; Meq/kg), Free Fatty acid (2.24; mg KOH/g), ph (5.7; 5.2), Density (0.91,0.90kg/m 3 ), Acidity (114.50; mg/l) and Turbidity (586.5; FTU) respectively. The results showed that the method of soxhlet extraction gave the highest yield and that the cashew nuts reject oil is non- drying, non - edible and can be employed for soap making, biodiesel production and other industrial uses. Key words: Cashew nuts reject oil, Proximate composition, Physicochemical properties. Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None declared. How to Cite: Aremu M and Akinwumi O Extraction, Compositional and Physicochemical Characteristics of Cashew (Anarcadium occidentale) Nuts Reject Oil Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, 3, Available at: This article is is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. Attribution-NonCommercial (CC BY-NC) license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon work non-commercially, and although the new works must also acknowledge & be non-commercial. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 33

34 INTRODUCTION C ashew tree (anacardium occidentale linn.) is widely cultivated across the coastal regions of the tropics (gibbon and pain, 1985; naggy et al., 1990) and is known to have high utility value. the fruits, the leaves, the bark, the wood and the roots have all been reported to be of valuable commercial uses for food, medicine, industry and environment (nagabhusana and ravindranath, 1995; akinwale, 1996; bisana and laxamana, 1998). the three main cashew products traded in the international market are; raw cashew nuts, cashew kernels and cashew nut shell liquid (Azam-Alli and Judge, 2001). Cashew kernel is widely consumed as roasted, fried, salted or sugared snacks, as a material for confectionery, bakery products and as a food ingredient (Azam-Alli and Judge, 2001) because it contains vital minerals that are seldom found in daily diets (Holland et al., 1991; Cashew Export Promotion Council, 1992; Davis, 1999). The relative abundance of monounsaturated fatty acid in cashew nut is conducive to the promotion of good health and the relative abundance of fat in cashew nut in no way poses a nutritional risk (Achal, 2002). The advantage of cashew nut is that it has a delightful taste, is meaty and acceptable as it is, and this has resulted in an upsurge of growing interest in cashew. The seed has double shell containing an allergic phenolic resin; arcadic acid, a potent skin irritant chemically related to the more well known allergenic oil (urushiol) found in the related poison ivy. Properly roasting cashew nuts destroys the toxin (Rosen and Fordice, 1994). The cashew nut is a high value nut which yields two oils. One of them is obtained between the seed coat and the nuts known as the cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL). It is not a triglyceride hence cannot be converted to biodiesel but contains a high proportion of phenolic compound that can be polymerized in a variety of ways. This makes it a versatile industrial raw material with diverse uses in friction linings, paints and varnishes, laminating and epoxy resins, foundry chemicals and as an intermediary of chemicals. It is, however, toxic and corrosive to the skin (Alexander 2008). The second oil obtained from the nuts contains triglyceride and, therefore, a potential and abundant source of feedstock for the production of biodiesel. It is used for manufacturing wood preservatives, coating and friction materials. Cashew nut rejects is a waste materials/products from the cashew nut processing industry. It is regarded as not suitable for consumption by human because of its lower quality grade. Therefore, the present study is designed to explore the potentials in terms of physical and chemical properties of cashew nut reject oil as a way of turning waste to wealth. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials collection and preparation The cashew rejects nuts were purchased from Olam Nigeria Limited, Oyo, Oyo State, South- Western Nigeria. This industry is known to be one of the major exporters of cashew nut in Nigeria. The processing involved raw cashew nuts which were washed manually using sand and water, soaked, steamed and sun dried for 5 days. Shelling was done using (locally) fabricated Sheller. The nuts were graded according to quality. Those not suitable for human consumption are graded as reject and used for this study. These rejected nuts were thoroughly screened to remove dirty materials and stones. The nuts were sun dried, Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 34

35 and later oven dried at C for 5 hours to make it bone dry. The covering testa was removed by squeezing followed by winnowing to obtain very neat nuts. Dried clean nuts were milled using grinder. The powdered/ milled sample was stored in a polythene bag and kept in a refrigerator at 4 0 C until ready for proximate analysis. Methods Proximate analysis The proximate analysis of the milled cashew nuts rejects samples for moisture content; crude protein; crude fiber; ether extract; ash contents; tanning and phytic acid were carried out in duplicates using AOAC (2000) method. Nitrogen content was determined using Kjeldahl method. Extraction of oil Cashew nuts reject oil was extracted from milled cashew nuts samples by Soxhlet extraction using n-hexane of analar grade with boiling range 60 0 C 80 0 C according to standard procedures (AOAC, 1990). In this case 100g of milled sample was packed in a Whatman s filter paper and inserted into the soxhlet extractor with n-hexane as the extracting solvent. After six continuous hours of extraction, solvent was recovered by simple distillation and the residue oil was oven dried at 60 0 C for 30minutes. The sample was allowed to cool in desiccators before weighing. Drying, cooling and weighing processes were carried out repeatedly until a constant dry weight was obtained. Oil yield in percentage was calculated using equation (1). Also, mechanical extraction was done using mechanical screw gauge. The milled seeds were preheated between 95 and C in order to improve efficiency of the oil expression and then put inside muslin clothe and thereafter, processed in a screw type oil expeller. The oil was collected in a bottle and allowed to settle for 48 hours at C. Vacuum filtration was applied to the bilayer of oil to remove unsettled particulates in preparation for further testing (Latinwo et al., 2010). % Oil Yield = weight of extracted oil 100..(1) Weight of sample Physicochemical characteristics of the oil The physical and chemical characteristics of the oils expressed by the different methods were assayed as follows; the refractive index of the oil was determined at 20 (British Standard, BS 684, (1985) with Abbe refractometers; the specific gravity at 20 (Josyln, 1976). The acid value, ph, turbidity, Free Fatty Acids, Saponification Value, Iodine value (Wijs), Peroxide Value are determined using standard methods of the AOAC (1999) while the viscosity was determined using the Ubehlode Viscometer according to IUPAC procedures. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of proximate composition of the cashew nuts rejects before extraction are as presented in Table 1. The results showed that the seed contain 8.90% moisture content, 22.10% crude protein, 0.90% crude fiber, 40.23% ether extract, 3.73% ash content, 24.04% nitrogen free extract, while 1.02% and 0.50% are for tannin and phytic acid respectively. The results of the proximate composition were similar to the report of Ologunde et al., (2011) that worked on Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 35

36 different samples of cashew nut in three different locations. They reported 23-26% for crude protein, 5-6% for moisture content; % for crude fat and % for ash content. The value obtained for the moisture content falls within the range of values of moisture content for most legumes which range between 7.85 and 11.0%. The mean value of 22.10% obtained for crude protein is comparable to those obtained for protein rich food such as soybeans, cowpeas, melon and pumpkin which range between 23.1% to 33.0% (Olaofe et al.,1994). The mean value of crude fiber of cashew nuts reject oil was very low compared to those of legumes which ranged between 5 6% (Aremu et al., 2006) The mean value of 40.23% obtained for ether extract which is an indication of crude fat is comparable to the value for different varieties of melon oil seeds which range between % ( Ige et al.,1984). A value of 3.73% obtained for ash content is high. Pomeranz and Clifton (1981) recommended that ash contents of nuts, seeds and tubers should fall in the range % in order to be suitable for animal feeds. Therefore, cashew nut is not suitable for animal feeds even after the oil was extracted. Table 1 Proximate composition of Cashew Nut Rejects Parameters (%) Obtained values Moisture content 8.90 ± 0.2 Crude protein ± 0.2 Crude fiber 0.90 ± 0.3 Ether extract ± 0.1 Ash 3.73 ± 0.1 Nitrogen free extract Tannin 1.02 Phytic acid 0.50 The results of the physicochemical characteristics of cashew nuts reject oil are as shown in Table 2. The colour of oil extracted from the cashew nuts reject through Soxhlet extraction is Winsor orange while the one from mechanical extraction is yellowish. The specific gravity is and for Soxhlet and Mechanical extracted oils respectively; this is an indication that both oils are less dense than water. According to Yahaya et al., (2012), specific gravity is commonly used in conjunction with other figures in assessing the purity of oil. The specific gravity of cashew nut oil falls within the narrow range of for vegetable oils. This value is close to those of some well-known edible oils like sesame, soya beans and corn oils of and cottonseed and sunflower oils of (Josyln, 1976). Akinhanmi et al., (2008) have earlier reported in a similar assessment of physicochemical properties of cashew nut oil. The iodine values obtained are I2/100g (soxhlet) and I2/100g (mechanical) respectively. These values contradict the previous results on cashew nut oil by Aremu et al., (2006) and Akinhanmi et al., (2008) who stated mg I2/100g and mg I2/100g respectively. The iodine value is a measure of the degree of unsaturation in oil; it gives valuable information about the drying property of the oil as well as the extent of adulteration of the oil (Yahaya et al., 2012). They further stated that it is helpful in determining the ability of oil to be hardened through the process of hydrogenation. Akinhanmi et al., (2008) concluded that oils are classified into drying, semi drying and non-drying according to their iodine values. The values obtained in Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 36

37 this studies indicates that cashew nuts reject oil is non-drying oil since it is lower than 100. Ojeh (1985) and Yahaya et al., (2012) however, obtained higher values of 84.98mg/kg and Meq/kg for cashew nuts reject oil which was similar to the value obtained for mechanical extraction. The saponification value obtained for the cashew nuts reject oil is 21mgKOH/g (Soxhlet) and 167mgKOH/g (Mechanical). The results here are higher than the value of 137Mg KOH/g reported by Akinhanmi et al., (2008). Yahaya et al., (2012) also reported 159.9, and 178 mg KOH/g for cashew nut oil extracted using soxhlet, aqueous and mechanical methods respectively. Saponification value of oil is an index of average molecular weight of the triglyceride composition of the oil. Values above 200mg/KOH indicate the presence of fatty acids of low or fairly low molecular weight, while values below 190 mg/koh is an indication that high molecular weight fatty acids is present. The Free Fatty Acid profile of the extracted oil is given by the result of spectroscopic analysis in Figure 1 below, and the fatty acid composition is given in Table 3. The result of Fatty Acid profile also confirms that cashew nut reject oil has a large number of carboxylic acid functional group with which alkali may react to produce cleaning agent, thus making it a suitable raw material for soap making. The values of 2.24 mgkoh/g and 2.25mgKOH/g obtained for Free Fatty Acid of the oil for soxhlet and mechanical methods respectively are similar to the value of 2.24mgKOH/g reported for free fatty acid of cashew nut oil by Ologunde et al., (2011). It was reported that this range of values for free fatty acid in an oil suggest that the oil demonstrated high potential as industrial material. Although, refined oils are largely devoid of free fatty acids, a considerable amount of this constituent may be present in the unrefined oil which, in fact, is an index of purity of the oil. Also the high acid value and high saponification value is an indication that the oil will be suitable for soap making. Also, the peroxide value of ME /kg is obtained for the oil from soxhlet extraction and ME /kg for oil from mechanical extraction. The values here are similar to that of aqueous extraction of cashew nut oil ( ME /kg) by Yahaya et al., (2012). The higher value recorded is an evidence that the extracted oil has high peroxide values, which is above the allowable level for edible oils, and the implication is that the oil has undergone hydrolytic oxidation. Table 2 Physico-Chemical characteristics of cashew nut reject oil Parameters Soxhlet method Mechanical method % yield PH Colour Winsor orange Yellowish Density (kg/m 3 ) Iodine value I2/100g ± ± 0.1 Saponification value (mg KOH/g) 212 ± ± 0.3 Peroxide value (Meq/kg) ± ± 0.2 Acidity (mg/l) ± ± 0.4 Free Fatty acid (% oleic acid) 2.24 ± ± 0.1 Acid value (mg KOH/g) Specific gravity (at 20 0 ) Turbidity (FTU) Refractive index Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 37

38 Table 3: Fatty Acids Composition of Cashew Nuts Reject Oil. Components Names (Fatty Acid) Retention time Area % 10:0 Capric :0 Lauric :0 Myristic :0 Palmitic :1 Palmitoleic :0 Stearic :1 Oleic :0 Arachidic :0 Behenic :0 Lignoceric CONCLUSION Fig.1: The Fatty Acids Profile of Cashew nut Rejects oil This study on compositional and physicochemical property of oil from cashew nut reject revealed that the oil is non drying, non-edible and may be suitable for other industrial uses like soap making and biodiesel production. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 38

39 REFERENCES Achal (2002). Cashew: Nutritional and medicinal value, Colorado, Colorado State University. Akinhanmi, T.F., Atasie, V. N and Akintokun, P.O. (2008). Chemical composition and physicochemical properties of cashew nut (Anarcadium occidentale) oil and Cashew nut shell liquid. Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, 2 (1): Akinwale T.O. (1996). Cashew utilization: CRIN Experience. Proceedings of National Workshop on Cashew Production Technology. March 26-29, Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria (CRIN), Ibadan, Nigeria. Alexander H.T. (2008). A Nutty chemical. Chemical and Engineering News. 86(36):26-27 AOAC (1990). Official methods of Analysis 15th edition, Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington DC, USA. AOAC (1999). Official methods of Analysis 13th edition, Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington DC, USA. AOAC (2000). Official methods of Analysis 17th edition, Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington DC, USA. Aremu, M. O., Olaofe, O. and Akintayo, T. E. (2006.) A comparative study on the chemical and amino acid composition of some Nigerian underutilized legume flours. Pak. J. Nurtion. 5: Azam-Alli S.H. and Judge E.C. (2001). Small Scale Cashew Nut Processing, Intermediate Technology Development Group FAO, Rome. Bisana, B.B. and Laxamana N.B. (1998). Utilization of cashew shell residue for charcoal briquettes and activated carbon production. FPRDI-Journal, 24(2): Bogert, J.L., Briggs, G.M. and Galloway, D.H. (1994). Nutrition and Physical Fitness. Int. J. Food Sc. Nutrition. 45: Cashew Export Promotion Council, (1992). Cashew Week, Cochin, India, 1(14): 3. Davis K. (1999). Cashew. Echo Technical Note, June 14, FAO (2006). Cashew. June 14. Gibbon D. and Pain A. (1985). Crops of the Drier Regions of the Tropics. Longman Press, London, UK, pp Holland B., Welch A.A., Unwin I.D., Buss D.H., Paul A.A. and Southgate D.A.T. (1991). The Composition of Foods: The Royal Society of Chemistry and Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Foods. Xerox Ventura Publishing, Cambridge. Ige, M.N., Ogunsua, A.O. and Okon, O.I.(1984). Functional Properties of the Protein of Some Nigerian Oil seeds: Casophor seeds and three varieties of some Nigerian Oil seeds. Food Chemistry. 32: Josyln B.J.F. (1976). Methods in Food Analysis. 2nd Edition. Academic Press New York San Francisco. Nagabhushana K.S. and Ravindranath B. (1995). Efficient medium scale chromatographic group separation of anacardic acids from solvent extracted from CNSL. J. Agric. Food Chem., 43(9): Naggy S., Shaw P.E. and Wardowski W.F. (1990). Fruits of Tropical and Sub-tropical Origin: Composition, Properties and Uses. Florida Sci. Source Press Inc., Florida, U.S.A. O Farrell P., Blackie S., and Chacko E. (1988). The New Rural Industries: A Handbook for Farmers and Investors. Rural Industries Res. Devel. Corp. (RIRDC). Australia. June 14, Ojeh O (1985). Cashew kernel Another locally available source of vegetable oil. Nigerian Agricultural Journal. 19/20: Olaofe, O.F., Adeyemi, O. and Adeniran, G.O. (1994). Amino acid and Mineral Composition and Functional Properties of some Oil seeds. J. Agric. & Food Chemistry. 42: Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 39

40 Ologunde, M.O., Omosebi, M.O., Ariyo, O., Olunlade, B.A. and Abolaji, R.A. (2011) Preliminary Nutritional Evaluation of Cashew nuts from different locations in Nigeria. Continental Journal of Food Science and Technology 5(2): Olunloyo O.A. (1996). Cashew and its Potentialities. Proceedings of National Workshop on Cashew Production Technology. March 26-29, Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria (CRIN), Ibadan, Nigeria. Pomerantz and Clifton (1981). In Food Analysis theory and practices. Westport, L.T., AVI Publishing Comp. P17, properties of defated soybean, peanut, field pea and pecan flours. J. Food Sci., 42: Rosen T. and Fordice D.B. (1994). Cashew Nut Dermatitis. Southern Medical Journal. 87(4): Yahaya A.T., Taiwo O., Shittu T.R., Yahaya L.E. and Jayeola C.O. (2012). Investment in Cashew Kernel Oil Production; Cost and Return Analysis of Three Processing Methods. American Journal of Economics, 2(3): Being an Open Access Journal, AJASE does not receive payment for online subscription as the journals are freely accessible over the internet. Why Open Access??? In the traditional publishing model, readers have limited access to scientific papers; authors do not have copyright for their own papers, and cannot post their papers on their own websites, which presents a significant barrier to the sharing of knowledge, as well as being unfair to authors. Open access can overcome the drawbacks of the traditional publishing model and help scholars build on the findings of their colleagues without restriction Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 40

41 Estimation of Groundwater Recharge Using Water Balance Model Coupled with Base flow Separation in Bulbul River Catchment of Gilgel-Gibe River Basin, Ethiopia A.Shimelis 1, O.Megerssa 2, & A.Fantahun 3 1 Department of Natural resource and Environmental Engineering, Oromia Agricultural research Institute, Ethiopia 2 Post-doc Fellow, Department of Civil Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa 3 Senior researcher and Irrigation and Drainage Engineer, Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural research, Ethiopia ARTICLE INFO Volume 3 Number 3/2014 Issue 7 DOI: /ajase/2014/v3i7/53574 Received: May 21, 2014 Accepted: Jun 21, 2014 Revised: Jun 26, 2014 Published: August 10, for correspondence: magarsol@yahoo.com ABSTRACT Sustainable development, use and management of groundwater resources is a challenge under the current population growth, land degradation, climate change and economic development require proper quantification of groundwater recharge. Therefore, this study anticipated the amount, spatial and temporal variability of groundwater recharge at the Bulbul River Catchment of Gilgel-Gibe River Basin (Ethiopia) using the soil mass balance method in conjunction with base-flow separation method.theresult shows coefficient of groundwater recharge by the precipitation isestimated to be 23.07% and 25.62%from theestablished soil moisture budget model and the base-flow model respectively. Even though, change in groundwater storage in the area is positive, the river flow demonstrated a seasonal shift from summer to autumn. This change may substantially alter seasonal water retention capacity in the river catchment and irrigation development in the floodplain following the embankment. Hence, supplementary irrigation water application at the time of water shortage in the area is highly recommended. Key words: Riverbasin, Groundwater, Recharge, Discharge, Water budget, Base flow. Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None declared. How to Cite: Shimelis A, Megerssa O and Fantahun A Estimation of Groundwater Recharge Using Water Balance Model Coupled with Base flow Separation in Bulbul River Catchment of Gilgel-Gibe River Basin, Ethiopia Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, 3, Available at: This article is is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. Attribution-NonCommercial (CC BY-NC) license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon work non-commercially, and although the new works must also acknowledge & be non-commercial. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 41

42 INTRODUCTION The availability and access to freshwater resources are considered to be a determining factor for economic growth and social development patterns. Groundwater, which constitutes 97% of fresh water of the world, is potable at source, available in-situ and has a low temporal variability (Taylor and Barrett, 1999). These characteristics have made groundwater the most important source of water for the current generation. Globally, over two billion people depend directly upon groundwater for drinking water. Moreover, about 40% of the world s irrigated agriculture depending largely on it (UNESCO, 2004). Owing to increased demand and natural climate change, groundwater is often abstracted beyond its natural recharging capacity resulting in depletion of the resource (Badieet al., 2002).The amount of water potentially to be extracted from an aquifer without causing depletion is primarily dependent on the groundwater recharge. Thus, a quantitative evaluation of the resource is a pre-requisite especially in developing countries like Ethiopia, where most people rely on it as a source of potable water and domestic uses. In Ethiopia, more than 70% of domestic water supply depending on groundwater resource (EAH, 2007). Bulbul River Catchment, located in Gilgel-Gibe River Basin of Ethiopia, is under pressure from population growth and climate change. Most of the previous researches are mainly focused on surface water, and little information is known about the groundwater potential of the area. There is an urgent need to investigate the groundwater hydrology of the area. The current study, therefore, presents the status of groundwater recharge in the Bulbul River Catchment of Gilgel-Gibe River Basin (Ethiopia). The study result is expected to contribute to the sustainable development and management of the groundwater resource in the region. MATERIALS AND METHODS STUDY AREA Bulbul River Catchment is locatingin the vicinity of Gilgel Gibe Sub- River basin of Omo- Gibe basin, which is one of eight main drainage basin of Ethiopia. It is locating(7 31'-7 58'N and 36 51'-37 9'E)at a distance of about 335Km South-west of Addis Ababa. Figure 1. Location map of the study area Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 42

43 The area is bordering by the Jimma townin the North-East side. Bulbul Riveris one of the perennial tributaries of the Gilgel Gibe River draining an area of km 2 carrying mean annual flow of over 235 million m 3.Elevation of the area ranges between 1,800 and 2,800 mean above sea level.the meanannual temperature of the area is 20 C.In general, the study area is characterized by a wet climate with an average annual rainfall of about 1,520mm, and 60% occur from June to September. The soil texture of the area ranges from clay to that of sandy loamwith a hydraulic conductivity in the ranges of from to cm/day. Figure 4 shows the distribution of different soil type in the study area. Geologically, the area comprises rocks thatrange from Precambrian to Quaternary, more dominantly Pliocene age volcanic with a thick succession of basalts and slick rocks which show a conformable relationship but they lie unconformable over the Precambrian basement(mengesha et al., 1996). The area is dominated by Nitisolsfollowed by fluvial soils. Figure 2. Soil map of Bulbul Sub-River Basin DATA COLLECTION Thirty years ( ) meteorological data (rainfall, temperature (maximum and minimum), relative humidity, sunshine hours, and wind speed) of four meteorological stations, namely Jimma, Limmu-Genet, Asendabo and Sokoru were taken from the National Meteorological Agency of Ethiopia. Similarly, 20 years ( )daily gaugeddata of Bulbul and GilgelGibe Rivers obtained from the Ministry of Water,Irrigation and Energy of Ethiopia. Besides, land use and cropping pattern data of the study area were obtained from KerssaWereda Agriculture and Development Office.Moreover, indigenous irrigation water application depth, groundwater level inspection and draft from groundwater werecarried outin selected fields. Missing values of historical climatic data werefilled using appropriate methods. Normal ratio method (Equation 1) was used to fill missing values for precipitation. For other climatic variables, multiple regression methods(equation 2,Xia et.al., 1999) were used. V o n i=1 W i V i n i=1 W i (1) Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 43

44 V o = a o + n i=1 (a i V i ) (2) WhereV o is estimated missing value, W i is weight of the i th nearest weather station, V i is the observational data of the i th nearest weather station and a0, a1, anare regression coefficients. RECHARGE ESTIMATION Some of the groundwater recharge estimation methods commonly used include water balance, Darcy physical methods, chemical, and isotopic methods (Kinzelbach et al., 2002). Each of the methods has its own advantages and drawbacks in terms of applicability and reliability. Estimating the rate of aquiferreplenishment is inevitably subject to errors and no single comprehensive estimation technique has been identified. Clarity on the aim of the groundwater recharge study is crucial in selecting appropriate methods for recharge estimation, which must be according to the data input available. In the current study water balance method was used to quantify groundwater recharge. Water balance model is still used in many studies from catchment scale to global scale (Lerner et al., 1990; Mintz and Walker, 1993). The advantage of the water balance method is that recharge can usually be estimated from readily available data (rainfall, runoff, water levels) and rapid to apply. DEVELOPMENT OF WATER BALANCE MODEL Water balance of the Bulbul river catchment was presented schematically in Figure 3 which shows inflow and outflow from groundwater storage. It is a bookkeeping process between recharging and the discharging component (Equation 3). Estimating groundwater inflow and outflow is the most difficult to evaluate because they cannot be directly measured,often one of them, or the difference, is fixed by being the only unknown in the equation. Hence, the boundaries of the water budget are usually delineated deliberately to coincide with the water shed boundaries, and groundwater inflow and outflow are assumed equal (Fish, 2011).Other water balance components such as recharge from canal seepage, recharge from tanks, influent seepage from and effluent seepage to rivers were reasonably neglected as their effect may abandon each other. Figure 3. Diagram for water balance modified from W.H. Freeman and Company (2007) Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 44

45 I O ± S = 0 3 Where I representan input to the system, O is an output from the system and S is change in storage of the system.the basic steps followed in recharge estimation were:(i) formulating the general water balance equation,(ii) identification of significant components, and (iii) evaluating and quantifying individual components. Hence, looking at characteristics of geographic regionand availability of data, water balance model of the study area was simplified as: R t = P t + RI t ET t q t Q t S t (4) Where R (t) is groundwater recharge, P (t) isprecipitation, RI (t) is recharge from an irrigated field,et (t) is evapotranspiration, q (t) is a draft from well,q (t) is rainfall excess (runoff), and S (t) is the change in groundwater storagein cubic meter on a yearly base. All the components of water balance described in (Equation 4)were determined systematically.potential ETfor a reference crop (ETo)was calculated by CROPWAT (Version 8.0) computer program using Penman-Montethsmethod. Whereas, Actualevapotranspiration (ETc) was obtained by multiplying (ETo) by crop coefficient (Kc) obtained from FAO working paper.similarly, runoff for the river catchment was determined from river-gauged data at the outlet that quantifies over all discharges. In addition, change in soil moisture content was predicted by gravimetric method for the soil profile at depth of 20, 60, 100 and 150cm for both dry and wet periods.finally, Richards s differential equation (Equation 5) was used to determine the change in soil moisture content in the river catchment. S = Q Z1 +Q(Z2) 2 Z (5) WhereQ is the water content (m 3 m -3 ) at specified depth, Z1& Z2are soil profile depth and Z describes the difference between the profiles. Moreover, FAO recommendations for developing country (5-15l/day/person)were used for quantum analysis of the draft from groundwater for household consumption. For this study, an average of 10l/day/per was used after informal discussion with farmers. Likewise, four irrigation schemes located in the river catchment were selected of which three representative farmers taken to investigate their water application toquantify recharge due to applied irrigation. Partial flume was used to measure incoming flow and the bottom of the field dike to inhibit tail water measurement. The farmers were allowed to irrigatetheir land as usual recording time elapsed to complete irrigating the entire area. Finally, the farmers were interviewed for application interval and the average number of applications for all stages of the crop. Mass balance for the irrigated plot was used to obtain percent share of crop water requirement recharginggroundwater from irrigated land. The mean value of percent share of crop water requirement, joining groundwater was used to quantify groundwater recharge due to irrigation in the river catchment. BASE FLOW ESTIMATION Determining quantum of groundwater recharge alone gives indistinct information about groundwater and leads to an incorrect decision. Accordingly, detailed study of hydrogeology of the aquifer surrounding the study area is conditioned from available data.hence, the data were passed under different analysis likebase flow separation and flow duration curve. Hydrograph of observed river flow data was developedpurposefully Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 45

46 for the time seriesof and and base flow separation was worked out using recursive digital filter method. Likewise, the flow duration curve of 20 years daily river gauged data in which the shape of low-flow conditions (exceeded 50% of the time) of the graph drawn thatindicates the hydro-geological characteristics of the area. RESULT AND DISCUSSION WATER BALANCE COMPONENTS Table 1 presents the monthly groundwater recharge from irrigated fields for the crops grown in the study area.precipitation and return from an irrigated field are the only recharging component in the river catchment. Assessment made on indigenous irrigation application in the area reveals that about 24% of required irrigation water percolate deep into the ground and recharge groundwater. This result well agrees with Taji and Hanson (1990) finding. Hence, 24% of irrigation water needs were account for deep percolation to groundwater recharge. The deep percolation from irrigated meadow varies from zero in the month of October to 825 ha.m /dec in the month of December. Table 1. Groundwater recharge from an irrigated field (m 3 ) Crop water requirement per decade in mm water requirement (m 3 ) Deep percolation from an irrigated field Month Maize Potato Tomato Others total Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Total Table 2 presents estimated values of ET for different land use and land coverin the Bulbul River Catchment. It accounts in the area for over 153Mm 3 of water loss.similarly; 275Mm 3 of water leaves the catchment in the form of rainfall excess yearly. According to CSA (2007) report, the population density is 302person pre km 2, andthere are about 153,370 people resides in the rivercatchment.hence, the amount of water abstracted for domestic consumption (Considering average rate of 10 l/day/ person) was found to be in the order of 560,184m 3 /year. Table 2.Estimated value of Evapotranspiration CN Parameter Area (ha) Estimated value of ET(m 3 /ha/year) 1 perennial crop ,233,022 2 free water surface 250 3,287,025 3 rain fed ,335,303 4 irrigated field ,473,286 Total ,328,636 Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 46

47 Date depth Reading sites (m 3 /m 3 ) Jan , Feb S(t1) S(t2) S total soil moisture content change (m 3 /m change in soil moisture content (m 3 ) 25,289, Table 4 presents summary of groundwater balance components for Bulbula sub-basin. In water balance analysis, precipitation and recharge from an irrigated field was the recharging components. Whereas runoff from the sub-basin, ET, water abstraction for domestic use and change in soil moisture content considered as the discharging component. Hence, with application of water balance model described above substituting the results for each component in the area groundwater recharge exceeds discharge by mean annual value of 178,067,792m 3 which is corresponding to 23.07% of mean annual precipitation fall in the area. Table 4.Summary of groundwater balance of Bulbul Sub-river basin P (t) RI(t) Q(t) ET(t) q(t) S R(t) 771,932,000 70,388, ,074, ,329, ,184 25,289, ,067,792 BASE FLOW ESTIMATION Hydrograph was developed forriver gauged data of and time series purposefully. The developed hydrograph was separated in to base flow and quick flow. Details of the Bulbul River flow hydrograph with its base flow separated were presented in Figures 4 and 5.As it is shown clearly in the graph, the river carries more or less constant discharge in winter and spring seasons. The mean river flow begins rising in the summer and attains its peak almost at the end of the season, and the flow resides in the autumn seasonfor both periods. However, the graph is characterized by gentle rising limb and steep recession limb for the former time series, and it reversed for the later period. This change shows that existence of the seasonal change in river flow in the area that may be due to the seasonal budge in precipitation and or change in hydro-geological characteristics over time. Nevertheless, the mean annual river flow showed neither increasing nor decreasing trend under 95% confidence level ofthe Mann Kendal test.the overall contribution of ground water to surface water that believed equivalent to groundwater recharge estimated at206,305,567 m 3 of water, and it accounts 26.7% of mean annual precipitation fall in the area. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 47

48 For detailed understanding of hydrogeology of the study area frequency duration curve of the observed river gauge data was analyzed seasonally. As shown in Figure 6that shows FDC of Bulbul River for each season. When we consider general character of low flow condition (exceeded 50% of the time)of the graph, the graph shows gently in winter followed by autumn.whereas, during spring and summer the shape of the graph shows relatively steep. Hence, the contribution of base flow to stream is significantly large in winter and autumn relative to other seasons this is may be because 60% of rain falls during summer recharging to groundwater storage in the study area, and the effect prevails slowly during those seasons. Figure 6. FDC of Bulbul River Catchment CONCLUSIONS In view of increasing demand of water for various purposes sustainable utilization of the resource, requires proper quantification of groundwater. Hence, water balance competitions,coupled with base flow analysis were performed in the river catchment using long-term average climatic and physical data. The coefficients ofgroundwater recharge by precipitation in the study areapredicted from established water budget Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 48

49 analysis and base flow model were 23.07%and 25.62%, respectively. The result of both methodsis quite close with the difference as small as 2.55%.Moreover, the groundwater level in the area illustrated both spatial and temporal variation in such a way that groundwater attain the maximum level in the month of September through October, and it decreases beyond these months continually and reach equilibrium in the month of February attaining the lower level. REFERENCES Bedient PB, Huber WC, Vieux BE Hydrology and Floodplain Analysis. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. EAH (Ethiopian Association of Hydro geologists), Abstracts of the first Annual Congress, Ghion Hotel, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Freeman W.H. and Company, The hydrologic cycle and groundwater. Fifth edition. Hydrology handbook, ASCE Publications, Jan 1, Pp80 Kinzelbach W., Aeschbach W., Alberich C., Goni I.B., Beyerle U., Brunner P., Chiang Lerner D. N., Issar A. and Simmers I., (1990). A guide to understanding and estimating natural recharge, Int. Contribution to hydrogeology, I. A. H. Publ., Vol. 8, Verlag Heinz Heisse, pp Mengesha Tefera., Tadiwos Chernet., and Workinesh Haro (1996). Geological Map of Ethiopia, 1:2,000,000 scale, Ethiopian institute of Geological survey, Addis Ababa Mintz Y. and Walker G.K., ( 1993). Global Fields of Soil Moisture and Land Surface Evapotranspiration Derived from Observed Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature. J. Applied. Meteor, 32, pp Program, National Water Development Report for Ethiopia (Final). Addis Ababa,Ethiopia. Rueedi J. and Zoellmann K., A survey of methods for groundwater recharge in arid and semi -arid regions. Early warning and assessment report series, UNEP/DEWA/RS Nairobi, Kenya, pp Tanji, K.K. & B.R. Hanson Drainage and return flows in relation to irrigation management. In B.A. Stewart & D.N. Nielsen, ed. Irrigation of agricultural crops. Agronomy Monograph No. 30. Madison, USA, American Society of Agronomy. Taylor, R.G. and Howard, K.W.F Groundwater recharge in the Victoria Nile basin of East Africa: support for the soil-moisture balance method using stable isotope and flow modeling studies. Journal of Hydrology Vol. 180, pp United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization World Water Assessment Xia, Y., Fabian, P., Stohl, A., Winterhalter, M., Forest climatology: reconstruction of mean climatological data forbavaria, Germany. Agric. Forest Meteorol. Asian Business Consortium realizes the meaning of fast publication to researchers, particularly to those working in competitive and dynamic fields. Hence, we offer an exceptionally fast publication schedule including prompt peer-review by the experts in the field and immediate publication upon acceptance. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 49

50 Using Laser-induced Breakdown Spectroscopy Technique to Identify the Low-Carbon Steel in the Industrial Alloy Mohammed S.Mahdi 1, Alaa H. Ali 2, Mohanad H. Hussein 3 1,3 Department of Laser & Optoelectronics Engineering, University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq 2 Department of Materials Research, Ministry of Science and Technology, Baghdad, Iraq ARTICLE INFO Volume 3 Number 3/2014 Issue 7 DOI: /ajase/2014/v3i7/53575 Received: Jun 28, 2014 Accepted: Jul 11, 2014 Revised: Jul 14, 2014 Published: August 10, for correspondence: alaa.spectro@gmail.com ABSTRACT Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy system (LIBS) had been designed for analysis of the industrial alloy via analysis induced plasma emission, laser spectroscopy to plasma produce one of the applications resulting from the interaction of the laser beam with material. The design consists of Nd:YAG laser passively Q- Switched with output energy 1064 nm) and (9 ns) pulse duration the laser beam was focused via converging lens with a focal length (100mm) that generates (7.07*10 8 W/mm 2 ) power intensity, optical analysis system was used that operated on the analysis of plasma light resulting from the interaction of lasers with the target, within spectrum range of nm and (0.5nm) optical resolution. The analysis results obtained show a variety of metallic elements in the industrial alloy, the results obtained by using X-ray fluorescence system (XRF), and other spectral references have been compared. LIBS have shown detection of the main elements in the sample with other elements are manganese, aluminum, sulfur, phosphorus, silicon, and carbon, these elements not identified in the XRF. Key words: Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy LIBS; XRFs; Plasma; Low-carbon steel. Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None declared. How to Cite: Mahdi MS, Ali AH and Hussein MH Using Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy Technique To Identify The (Low-Carbon Steel) In The Industrial Alloy Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, 3, Available at: This article is is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. Attribution-NonCommercial (CC BY-NC) license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon work non-commercially, and although the new works must also acknowledge & be non-commercial. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 50

51 INTRODUCTION T he low-carbon steel is a steel alloy consisting of iron and carbon. Several other elements are allowed in alloy, with low-maximum percentages. They are manganese, silicon, and copper, and rare-earth elements to improve the physicochemical properties, such as (Al, Co, Ti, S, P, Cr, W, etc.),and other elements can be found in(f. Cverna, P. Conti, A.S.M. Committee; 2006, T. Proulx; 2011). There are four types of carbon steel based on the amount of carbon in the alloy. Lower carbon steels are softer and more easily formed, it too important alloy that have widely used in industry.laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is a type of atomic emission spectroscopy which uses a highly energetic laser pulse as the excitation source (A.W.Miziolek; 2006, D.A.Cremers; 2013),that have beenreported for the first time in 1962(F.C. Brech; 1962), evolved since then to the technique of chemical analysis(f. Anabitarte, A. Cobo, J. Lopez-Higuera; 2012). LIBS technique that uses a high-intensity laser pulse to generate the plasma, the target can be solid, or liquid, or gas. A laser pulse of high-peak power is focused on the sample surface, transporting a large amount of energy to the target, begin temperatures to rise, melts, evaporates, and ionization of materials on the surface, this leads to the formation of hot small plasma. Due to the high intensive energy on target surface the plasma begins to expand and formed by ionized gas, during the period excited atoms begins to relax back to ground level, and then light-emitting unique called plasma spectrum emissions. Because of all element of the periodic table has a spectral fingerprint especially that can be distinct from the other materials (M. Reference; 2007), and then subsequent material is determined by the optical detect devices. This technique tremendous achievements in laser technology and reagents has achieved that later became the effective techniques for the analysis of metals(r. Barbini, F. Colao, R. Fantoni, A. Palucci, F. Capitelli; 1999), boosted it the great development in their ability to quantitative and qualitative analysis to a wide range of material(a. Stankova, N. Gilon, L. Dutruch, V. Kanicky; 2010, Z. Abdel-Salam, J. Al Sharnoubi, M.A. Harith; 2013), and these include metal alloys(m. Dzjubenko, S.Kolpakov, D. Kulishenko, A.Priyomko; 2007), soil(s.c. Jantzi, J.R. Almirall; 2011), explosives(j.l. Gottfried, F.C. Lucia, C.A. Munson, A.W. Miziolek; 2009), rocks and sediments(i. Rauschenbach, V. Lazic, S. Pavlov, H. Hubers, E.K. Jessberger; 2008, W. Tawfik;2007), as well as many other applications, making this primarily technology in terms of the multiplicity of advantages, including ability to analyze materials various(b.c. Windom, P.K. Diwakar, D.W. Hahn; 2006), nondestructive(j.p. McDonald, D.K. Das, J.A. Nees, T.M. Pollock, S.M. Yalisove; 2008), because it removes a very tiny amount of up to tens or hundreds of Nano-grams and has a high sensitivity and rapid response in detection(a. Stankova, N. Gilon, L. Dutruch, V. Kanicky; 2010), no sample preparation is required to obtain useful results(p. Dewalle, J.B. Sirven, A. Roynette, F. Gensdarmes, amp, amp, ois, L. Golanski, S. Motellier; 2011), relatively inexpensive compared with other conventional techniques, analysis on-site(d. Wilsch, F. Weritz, H. Wiggenhauser; 2003), and laboratory. In this paper will be devoted particularly in the design and construction of LIBS system for the analysis of the industrial alloy (low-carbon steel), during the emission spectrum of plasma in the air generated from the basic waveforms passive Q-Switched Laser Nd: YAG emitted from solid targets. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 51

52 METHODOLOGY The analysis of environmental conflict is the foundation for understanding the sensitivity of the conflict itself. It aim sat understanding the interactions between the conflicting parties and those who assist them in resolving the dispute (Jantzi & Almirall; 2011), and ignoring such analysis could intensify the complexity of the current situation. Subsequently, for the sake of finding a solution, this study focuses on the transboundary wastewater pollution conflict between Israel and the opt. There are many methods and procedures for addressing environmental conflict, including but not limited to, negotiation, mediation, diplomacy, which eventually would provide general solutions and guidelines on how the conflict could be resolved. But since each case has its own specificity, these solutions will not be applicable on all cases. Accordingly, this study follows an approach in analysing the conflict; where the conflict history, causes, nature, and parties have been identified in the introduction and the case study sections. The conflict roots alongside the obstacles that prevented reaching a solution were analyzed by concentrating on the conflict level, its impact on human beings lives, and the technical, social, and political aspects; as well as the parties interests in this continuing conflict. Furthermore, a conflict map has been used as a tool for analysis; this tool is based on defining the parties by using circles in which the circle size indicates the party s power. The circles are linked by lines where the shape of the line and its size indicate the nature of the link between the parties. In order to reach awin-winresult, Stakeholder Analysis (STA) is used to determine the needs of conflicting parties who have stake and interest in reforms. It is essential to have information about stakeholders interests and willingness to support the solution, thus ensuring the adaptation of realistic and sustainable policies (Jantzi & Almirall; 2011). In the STA part, stakeholders matrix, engagement towards conflict, and responses to the conflict were used as tools to understand their positions, their relationships with other groups, and their desire to find suitable solutions. In the last section, win-win solutions were developed based on the analysis of the conflict and of stakeholders, which helps in identifying possible negotiable strategies with the conflicting stakeholders. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP The experimental setup Figure 1, is equipped with a high-power Nd:YAG laser passively Q-switched that yields 50-mJ of pulse energy at the fundamental IR wavelength (1064 nm) with a 9 ns pulse width, the fundamental diameter of the laser beam was (5mm) that is focused onto the sample by a plano convex lens with a focal length of (10cm), the diameter of the focused on the sample was (1mm), peak power of the laser pulse (5.56MW) and power intensity (7.07*10 8 W/Cm 2 ). The sample is placed in the sample holder in ambient atmosphere, the emission from plasma is then collected in front of the plasma with observance to the laser beam direction, plasma emission was collected by 15mm diameter imaging lens, and focused onto optical fiber type (SMA, 50μm/0.22 NA), which deliver the plasma light to the entrance slit of spectrum analyzer model (CCS-100) with (1200 Line/mm) grating and 20-µm slit dimension, Which serves to deflect light according to wavelength and then reversed by mirrors to detect and convert optical signals to digital, and then moves the digital signal to the application, which shows us the spectral lines for the materials and then analyzed. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 52

53 Before the sample test in LIBS system, were analyzed by XRFs, for the purpose of the determination type elements in the sample. The industrial alloy used in our experience of the type of low-carbon steel (galvanized), dimensions 3.5*4.5cm. So that the sample size is sufficient to cover an area of X-ray detector to be analyzed. As shown in figure 2, and table.1 shows elements that have been identified in the industrial alloy, by XRF. (1) (2) Figure.1. Schematic diagram of LIBS experimental setup, and Figure.2. The sample used in our experiment, low-carbon steel. ANALYSIS SAMPLE The analysis sample is low-carbon steel by technique of LIBS. The composition of lowcarbon steel as shown in Table 1 Table 1. analytical lines of ( low-carbon steel) by technique of LIBS Sample λ (nm) Sample λ (nm) Sample λ (nm) Mn Cr W Si Ti Cu Co C S Fe P Al RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Based on the spectral lines of the elements of pure metal has been analyzed in the LIBS, and compared with National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) atomic spectra database (A. Kramida, Ralchenko; 2013), the elements have been identified in the sample, which the matched with XRF, table. 2 shows elements that have been identified in the industrial alloy, by XRF. LIBS has been used to determine the elements in the sample, Figure. 3 shown typical LIBS spectrum in different wavelength range and table 3. elements that have been identified in our LIBS.All the elements in the sample may identified in LIBS. In addition, other elements were identified, is not specified in the XRF, the elements are ( Al, Mn, S, P, Si, and C). Table 3. Illustrates the elements that have been identified in the XRF with the LIBS, compared with NIST. The rates of the difference between the results obtained are very few. The detected elements in the sample by the LIBS technique are the 12 elements. In the XRFs has been identified six of the elements. As in Table 2, XRF has a range of disadvantages; these Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 53

54 disadvantages make them unable to identify some elements. The main disadvantage of the XRF method is that it is not suitable for analysis of very small samples (B. Beckhoff, B. Kanngießer, N. Langhoff, R. Wedell, H. Wolff; 2007), but XRF is limited to the analysis of relatively large samples (typically >1gram), the samples must be in powder form and effectively homogenized, XRF is used for the analysis of materials for which compositionally similar, well-characterized standards are available, and materials containing high-abundances of elements for which absorption and fluorescence effects are well understood (V. Rai; 2011).Portable XRF systems are available but suffer from an inability to detect elements with an atomic number below 12 and greater than 92 (J.W. Robinson, E.M.S. Frame; 2004), and show an interference effect that can mask the analytic elements. Light elements (below 19 K) have very limited sensitivity, because they have higher detection limits ranging from the hundreds to thousands of ppm (J. Girard; 2013, D. Bakken, S. Grids; 2014).Although X-rays do not penetrate the surface and hence XRF is a nondestructive technique the deep regions cannot be interrogated, but with LIBS is possible. Figure 3. LIBS spectra recorded from low-carbon steel Table 2. Analysis of concentrations of elements in sample" low-carbon steel" Table 3. Analytical lines of low-carbon steel elements between the measurement and reference. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 54

55 CONCLUSIONS LIBS is low cost and high-efficiency system to analyze the industrial alloy compared to all other technologies of analysis. Via XRF we cannot analyze all component of (low-carbon steel) because of the limited elements detection of this system, light elements below 19 K have very limited sensitivity, although the X-rays do not penetrate the surface and hence XRF is a non-destructive technique deeper regions cannot be interrogated which is possible with LIBS. LIBS have shown high susceptibility to identify the following elements (manganese, copper, titanium, aluminum, cobalt, sulfur, phosphorus, iron, silicon, chromium, carbon, and tungsten). LIBS it's a quick way to analyze the material, non-destructive at the same time, and no sample preparation is required to obtain useful results. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Authors are thankful to Mr. Ali Zamil for the experimental assistance. For the analysis by X-ray fluorescence system by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Baghdad, Iraq. REFERENCES A. Kramida, Ralchenko, Yu., Reader, J., and NIST ASD Team "NIST Atomic Spectra Database (ver. 5.1)", in, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD., [Gaithersburg, Md.], (2013). A. Stankova, N. Gilon, L. Dutruch, V. Kanicky, "A simple LIBS method for fast quantitative analysis of fly ashes", Fuel, Vol. 89, 11,pp (2010). A.W.P.V.S.I. Miziolek, "Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) : fundamentals and applications", PP.3-4 (2006). B. Beckhoff, B. Kanngießer, N. Langhoff, R. Wedell, H. Wolff, Handbook of Practical X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis, Springer,pp , B.C. Windom, P.K. Diwakar, D.W. Hahn, "Dual-pulse Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy for analysis of gaseous and aerosol systems: Plasma-analyte interactions", Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy, Vol.61,7, pp (2006). Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 55

56 D. Bakken, Smart Grids: Clouds, Communications, Open Source, and Automation, Taylor & Francis,pp , D.A.R.L.J. Cremers, "Handbook of Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy ",John Wiley & Sons, pp (2013). D.S. G. Wilsch, F. Weritz, H. Wiggenhauser, "Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for on-site determination of chloride in concrete", Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Berlin, Germany, Vol.proc.NDT-CE 03 (2003). F. Anabitarte, A. Cobo, J.M. Lopez-Higuera, "Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy: Fundamentals, Applications, and Challenges", ISRN Spectroscopy, pp.1-12 (2012). F. Cverna, P. Conti, A.S.M.I.M.P.D. Committee, "Worldwide Guide to Equivalent Irons and Steels",pp , (2006). F.C. Brech, L., "Optical Microemission Stimulated by A Ruby Laser.", Appl.Spectrosc., Vol.16, pp. 59 (1962). I. Rauschenbach, V. Lazic, S.G. Pavlov, H.W. Hubers, E.K. Jessberger, "Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy on soils and rocks: Influence of the sample temperature, moisture and roughness", Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy, Vol.63,10, pp (2008). J.E. Girard, J. Girard, Principles of Environmental Chemistry, Jones & Bartlett Learning,pp , J.L. Gottfried, F.C. Lucia, C.A. Munson, A.W. Miziolek, "Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for detection of explosives residues: a review of recent advances, challenges, and future prospects", Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry, Vol.395, pp , (2009). J.P. McDonald, D.K. Das, J.A. Nees, T.M. Pollock, S.M. Yalisove, "Approaching non-destructive surface chemical analysis of CMSX-4 superalloy with double-pulsed laser induced breakdown spectroscopy", Spectrochimica acta. Part B, Vol.63,5, pp (2008). J.W. Robinson, E.M.S. Frame, G.M. Frame, Undergraduate Instrumental Analysis, Sixth Edition, Taylor & Francis,pp , M.I. Dzjubenko, S.N. Kolpakov, D.F. Kulishenko, A.A. Priyomko, "Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for quantitative measurement of metals alloys components", International Workshop on Optoelectronic Physics and Technology, pp (2007). Mobile Reference, "Chemistry Study Guide", pp.385,( 2007) P. Dewalle, J.-B. Sirven, A. Roynette, F. Gensdarmes, amp, amp, ois, L. Golanski, S. Motellier, "Airborne Nanoparticle Detection By Sampling On Filters And Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy Analysis", Journal of Physics: Conference Series, Vol.304,pp.01 (2011). R. Barbini, F. Colao, R. Fantoni, A. Palucci, F. Capitelli, "Application of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy to the analysis of metals in soils", Appl Phys A, Vol.69,1, pp. S175-S178 (1999). S.C. Jantzi, J.R. Almirall, "Characterization and forensic analysis of soil samples using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)", Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry, Vol.400, 10,pp (2011). T. Proulx, "Sensors, Instrumentation and Special Topics", Vol.6, 29th IMAC, PP (2011). V.K.S.A.K. Rai, Prospects for laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for biomedical applications: a review, Lasers in medical science, 26,pp , (2011). W. Tawfik, A. Askar, "Study of the Matrix Eff ect on the Plasma Characterization of Heavy Elements in Soil Sediments using LIBS with a Portable Echelle Spectrometer", Progress in Physics, Vol.1, pp.46-52, (2007). Z. Abdel-Salam, J. Al Sharnoubi, M.A. Harith, "Qualitative evaluation of maternal milk and commercial infant formulas via LIBS", Talanta, Vol.115. pp (2013). Asian Business Consortium is an independent research house committed to publishing and delivering superior, Peer-reviewed standard research Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 56

57 Measuring effectiveness of learning chatbot systems on Student s learning outcome and memory retention Suhni Abbasi 1, Hameedullah Kazi 2 1 Lecturer, Information Technology Centre, Sindh Agriculture University, Hyderabad, Pakistan 2 Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, Isra University, Hyderabad, Pakistan ARTICLE INFO Volume 3 Number 3/2014 Issue 7 DOI: /ajase/2014/v3i7/53576 Received: Jul 08, 2014 Accepted: Jul 10, 2014 Revised: Jul 16, 2014 Published: August 10, for correspondence: suhni.abbasi@sau.edu.pk ABSTRACT Creating a learning environment in which students learn more effective remains the great challenge from decades; different approaches a proposed, for example, Intelligent Tutoring Systems, Question Answerin System and chatbot. All these approaches used natural language achieve that goal. A comparison of these systems viz-a-viz stude learning outcome and behavior is of eminent importance. To achieve th goal a chatbot system with knowledge base for Object-Oriente Programming Languages is developed and deployed. Case study wa made to assess and evaluate the chatbot system for student learnin methodology. Learning outcomes and Memory retention have bee measured for the developed system. Comparisons were made betwee the results obtained using Google search engine and our chatbot system The results indicate that learning through Chabot have a significa impact on memory retention and Learning outcomes of the students. Keywords: Chatbot, Question Answering System, memory retention, learning outcomes Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None declared. How to Cite: Abbasi S and Kazi H Measuring effectiveness of learning chatbot systems on Student s learning outcome and memory retention Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, 3, Available at: This article is is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. Attribution-NonCommercial (CC BY-NC) license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon work non-commercially, and although the new works must also acknowledge & be non-commercial. INTRODUCTION T he advent of human computer interface is to provide ease of communication between human and computer in user friendly way. User usually approaches Google, Yahoo and other information retrieval systems for finding the solutions of Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 57

58 their problems but either they do not retrieve concise or relevant information, or they retrieve documents or links to these documents instead of an appropriate answer of their problems. To address such problem the idea of natural language dialog system arises in which user s questions in natural language and receives concise and appropriate answer Shawar and Atwell (2007). Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITSs) is computer based system that use Artificial Intelligence techniques to represent knowledge and offer support and guidance to learners in the process of learning struggling to master the learning and cognitive skills. In such systems when learners make any mistake they receive customized instructions or direct feedback on their problem solving task Corbett et al. (1997). Intelligent tutoring systems that use natural language have mostly been appropriate to be either tutor, pedagogical agents or chatbotskerly et al. (2006). A chatbot is a computer program designed to simulate communication with the user in natural language. The chatbot conversational approach can be integrated well with question answering system due to the fact that when user questions they should retrieve meaningful and concise answer Smith (2010). Benotti et al.(2014) reported that Chatbot perform as an efficient tool for increasing the Student s retention and engagement in a classroom environment, as well as online competition in the field of Computer science mainly. Kay (1997) describes that Presenting information in different ways may help students to think about their knowledge and also improve it. Further,He envisaged that all these goals can be achieved by chatbot suitably integrated into intelligent tutoring system. Constructing a dialogue-based human computer interface is quite challenging task in the same order of difficulty (quantitatively as well as qualitatively) as building an agent that can enhance their learning abilities. Thus, determining the efficacy of the learning chatbots on the student s behaviours like their cognitive load management, stress management, learning outcomes, memory retention etc. especially in the domain specificchatbots seems to be great challenge. This research pursueswhich and how behavior metrics are necessary to understand and consider for the student s learning outcomes and memory retentions through the chatbots systems. BEHAVIOR INDICATORS Behavior is response generated by the system by either internal or external stimulus states of the agent. Further, it describes some activities to accomplish the job associated with behaviour Qiu and Hu (2008). Kolb (1984) describes learning is a process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Learning environment includes the systems and dynamics that facilitate and make possible student involvement Coates (2006). It is reasonable to assume that the learning environment will have an influence on how user behaves in the learning environment. Aside from the learning environments, the design, building and delivery of contents Coates et al. (2005) are also factors that can influence the user behavior in learning environment. Prochaskaand Clemente (1992) introduce the model which describe how people can develop behavior and attitudes in learning environment and how the learning takes places. The five phases of the model are described below Acknowledgement of the new behavior or attitude, Recognition of one s similarity with the observation, Identification of the outcomes, Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 58

59 Remembrance of the behavior or an attitude, Reproduction of the behavior or an attitude, Reinforcement of the model. MEMORY RETENTION Mayer (2001) stated that the retention is the power to recognize or recall past learning events. The interaction with the chatbot system is done in Natural language dialogue, therefore, its interface is supposed to need improvement in the procedure of communication and some other features, such as usability, user satisfaction, learnability, and memory retention.lindsey et al. (2014)Reported that human memory is not completely perfect, for long term retention the regular review is very much important. Students in the academic environment are always facing problems to retain the increasing amount of material, as well as master in crucially new knowledge and skills. In the Chatbot Systems involvement of the users is more active during learning; user s reflection and self-explanation may well encourage, many parallel channels as well as frontal communication is allowed in chatbot systems. The ability to retain the answers for the longer time can be achieved by adapting these systems Jan et al. (2003). LEARNING OUTCOMES Dunlosky el al. (2013) reported that students can achieve their learning goals more effectively if the cognitive and educational psychologists develop and evaluate easy-to-use learning techniques. In distance education the use of chatbot or a computer software that is selfdirected, interactive, anthropomorphized, and aimed at enhancing the educational goals and outcomes play an important role. The Purpose of designing such computer software is focused by numerous hypothetical frameworks strained from different disciplines. Fosnot (1996) highlights exchange and communication of knowledge in natural language is effective way learning elaboration. The approach of using the chatbot in the learning environment have been identified as a learning tool with the ability to enhance learner interest, memory retention, and knowledge transference Hadwin et al. (2005). Johnson et al. (2000) argues that the chatbot have very great potential to enhance the communication abilities between students and computers and it also stimulate the students to engage with computer. Additionally it is supposed that traditionally improving learning outcomes and learning experiences tedious and were very challenging in distance learning. Reiners et al. (2014) suggested that developing the chatbot with the specialist resource with strong educational scenario have significant impact on the learning of students. EXISTING CHATBOT SYSTEM ELIZA Eliza is the first and well known chatbot of the world; it was developed by Joseph Weizenbaum in Eliza simulated a therapist role in clinical treatment. ELIZA search for simple keyword in the user request and then tries to define minimal context where it found the key word. ELIZA also choose appropriate transformation rule to, adjust the user request. To summaries, Eliza works by turning the user sentences around Angeli et al. (2001). Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 59

60 ALICE ALICE (Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity) was first developed by Dr. Wallace in 1995 continuously improved by means of the time. Brain or knowledge base of ALICE is stored in AIML format, AIML (or Artificial Intelligence Mark-up Language) an XML specification for programming Chatbot software. Currently, ALICE corpus size is more than 10K AIML categories and these are continuously increasing with respect to time, but all the categories are hard-coded, so adoption of new domains and languages is restricted Shawar and Atwell (2007). FAQCHAT FAQChat was first developed to chat about the UNIX OS but later on it was modified by the School of computing at the University of Leeds. The information retrieved from the FAQChat is similar to those which are found from Google search. The User interface was developed on the basis of such correspondence. The Interface requires input query and on the basis of that query it will produce two responses, one response is produced from the FAQchat, and the other one is retrieved from Google after filtering it to the FAQ of SoCShawar et al. (2005). FAQchat will give the response by selecting most significant words as token, and attempts to match longest possible pattern. FAQChat is language independent, so its response are not generated by using any morphological tools or by analysing the meaning of words Shawar et al. (2005). The working of FAQchat is summarized in the following steps: Filtering process is applied to the database of questions and answers to remove any unnecessary tags and then questions and answers are extracted from the whole database. The FAQ database gives questions and answers. After this, a list of links is constructed, containing the links from FAQ to web pages containing responses. All the words in questions are recorded in the dictionary with their frequencies of occurrence. From each question, the first and second most-significant words are extracted. In this step, the AIML categories are created. The input could either match a complete FAQ question or 1st or 2nd most-significant words in the question. If only one match is found, then response is a direct answer else in case of multiple matches, FAQchat returns links as a reply. NATURAL LANGUAGE ASSISTANT NLA serves users in finding notebooks according to their needs via natural language conversational dialogue. At each turn NLA provides incremental feedback for its understanding of user s requirements about a product. This iterative process of user s query refinement allows the system to find and recommend product that best matches with the user s requirements and constraints Chai et al. (2001). The system s architecture is composed of three major components. The Presentation Manager is used as an interpreter for user s questions and also generates system responses. The user s current requirements are input to the Dialogue Manager and on the basis of these requirements; the DM formulates action plans for Action Manager. The AM performs backend operations such as, database access. The DM then creates responses based on the results returned by AM and the discourse history and sends it to PM which responsible for displaying it to the user. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 60

61 NLA is unable to handle meta-level queries such as What is DVD? or How could I add memory to this model. METHODOLOGY PARTICIPANTS Seventy-two 2 nd year students of Information technology Centre, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam participated in this study. The participants of this study have been exposed the questions from the Object Oriented Programming languages domain. As this study measures the effect on memory retention and learning outcomes while using the chatbot system.the participants were randomly divided into two equal groups, one who used Google search engine and the other one used the Chatbot system to find the solution of their problems. EXPERIMENT DESIGN For designing the knowledge base for the selected domains i.e. object Oriented Programming languages; MySql Database Server is used. For producing the responses of the student s natural language queries, the GUI is connected to the knowledge Base via MySqlConnector.net. For developing the knowledge base total, 5000 question samples were collected from the all the students of 2nd year s students of the Information Technology Centre then those questions were divided into categories depending on the patterns of question. The identified question patterns in the survey were What, Why, Perform Operation,, How, Advantage or Disadvantage, Application and Who. The classification of questions and percentage of each category collected in the survey is shown in Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Percent of Questions collected from students The queries which are asked by the users are in natural language and in order to match these quires against a knowledge base the Artificial Intelligence Markup Language (AIML) is used. User Queries are matched against patterns and responses are generated in the form of Key Word from the Templates of the AIML file. AIML is very suitable for this Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 61

62 purpose as it was initially designed for conversational chatbot. The various forms of these types of questions are also implemented in the AIML files. The partial implementation of What * Query is shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 2 Partial Implementation of What Query SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE The system architecture is designed on the principles and techniques of chatbots and natural language processing. The question-answer responses in existing chatbots are hardcoded. But it is a cumbersome task to feed enough categories manually. An alternate to overcome this problem is to create an automated chatbot which extracts user responses from someknowledge source such as, database. Such chatbots are known as information retrieval chatbots. An information retrieval chatbot is the best alternative for traditional information retrieval systems such as Google as they provide direct answers to users natural language questions, unlike traditional information retrieval systems. The proposed solution that is an information retrieval chatbot reduces the time to browse and search through the documents to find the required answer. The architecture of the OOPL comprises of three main components: the User Interface, the AIML parser and AIML database. The system works as shown in Fig. 3. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 62

63 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS Fig. 3. OOPLChatbot Architecture To measure the students learning and memory retention through the chatbot it is essential to record individual performance. Appropriate computer-based pre-tests are required to understand factors that are useful to measure the learning abilities. To achieve this several surveys were conducted to measure memory retentions and students learning abilities. Students were divided into two groups, one who used Google search engine and the other ones used the Chatbot to find the solution of their problems. A total of 36 samples for each test were collected and evaluated. We adopted two Surveys, one for to measure memory retention in terms of students remembers the responses which they receive from Google or Chatbot and other is to measure the Learning Outcomes based on the quality of responses. The results obtained from both measures were evaluated from the expert faculty members of Information technology centre, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam. Below steps will briefly explained about the data analysis procedure for both measures will be explained briefly: For measuring memory retention, students were randomly divided into two groups (n=36); one who used Chatbot to find the solution of their problem and other group used Google Search Engine. The task was assigned to each student of the group, and three-time frames were set. One-time frame was set to 5 minutes, 2 hours and 1 day, and according to pre-defined time responses were checked that either student remember the responses they receive from both systems or not. The average counts of the responses as remember or not remember the exact answers from the OOPLChatbot and Google is shown in Fig 4. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 63

64 The results show that there is a significant difference in the responses received from Chatbot and Google search Engine. Results indicate high count for remembering the responses of ChatBot for all time s frames i.e. After 5 minutes, 2 hours and 1 day. Fig. 4. Average count results of Memory Retention For learning outcomes, pre and post were conducted of their pedagogical agent. We measured learning outcomes by randomly dividing students into two groups (n=36); one who used Chatbot to find the solution of their problem and other group used Google Search Engine. Two-sample tests were conducted; one test was conducted before using any system to perceive the knowledge about the subject s students wants to learn, and another test was conducted after using Chatbot or Google Search Engine. Five different tasks were randomly assigned in Pre-Test and Post-test to each student of the group. The time to find the solution of their problem was ten minutes for each test. The mean and standard deviation of all tests are shown in table and figure below (Table 1 and 2, Fig.5) PRE-TEST N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Google Chatbot Table 1. Pre-Test for the learning outcomes responses from chatbot and google search Engine POST-TEST N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Google Chatbot Table 2. Post-Test for the learning outcomes responses from chatbot and google search Engine Learning Outcomes Pre-Test Post-Test Google 24.05(9.76) 37.55(8.34) ChatBot 28.88(6.99) 54.77(8.32) Fig. 5. Mean Score and standard deviation of Learning Outcomes Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 64

65 The results show that Learning Outcomes measurements the post-test scores from Google and the Chatbot were significantly higher than the pre-test scores from these sessions (p < 0.001, Mann-Whitney). Thus, learning was achieved by users in both groups. However, learning outcomes in the Chatbot group was significantly higher than that of the Google group (p < 0.001, Mann-Whitney). CONCLUSION In this paper for measuring the various behaviours which effect on learning of students through chatbot system, a chatbot prototype was designed and assessed by the student. From the literature review, it is found that chatbot system is the efficient tool to not only measure but enhance the learning of the students. The designed prototype was evaluated for memory retention and learning outcomes. From the overall evaluations, it is concluded that students learning in terms of memory Retention and learning outcomes by using the chatbot system is significantly high in terms of quality as well as quantity as compares to the learning through the conventional search engines. Further, it is concluded that problems with students misspelling and false leads, quality of questions from the student can improve the overall learning through chatbot system. REFERENCES Angeli, A.D., Johnson, G I., and Coventry, L., (2001). The unfriendly user: exploring social reactions to chatterbots. Proceedings of 2001 The International Conference on Affective Human Factors Design. Dundee, London. Benotti, L.,Martínez, M. C., Schapachnik, F. (2014) Engaging High School Students Using Chatbots. Chai, J., Horvath, V., Kambhatla, N., Nicolov, N. and StysBudzikowska, M. (2001) A conversational interface for online shopping. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Human Language Technology Research, San, Deigo, pp. 1-4 Coates, H., (2006) Student Engagement in Campus-based and Online Education. University Connections. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data. 270 Madison Ave, New York. ISBN3: pp. Coates, H., James, R., and BALDWIN, G., (2005) A critical examination of the effects of learning management systems on university teaching and learning. Journal of Tertiary Education and Management. Vol. 11, pp Corbett, A. T., Koedinger, K. R., Anderson, J. R.(1997) Intelligent Tutoring Systems, Handbook of Human- Computer Interaction, Completely Revised Edition in M. Helander, T. K. Landauer, P. Prabhu (Eds), Elsevier Science B. V., c. 37, p Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., and Willinghamd, D. T. (2013). Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14, Fosnot, C. (1996). Constructivism: A Psychological theory of learning. In C. Fosnot (Ed.) Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice. New York: Teachers College Press. P Hadwin, F.H., Winne, P.H., and Nesbit, J.C. (2005). Roles for software technologies in advancing research and theory in educational psychology. British Journal of Educational Psychology, p Jan, R.B., Vos, E.D., and Witteman, C., (2003) Embodied Conversational Agents: Effects on Memory Performance and Anthropomorphisation. In T. Rist et al. (Eds.): IVA Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. Vol. 2792, pp Johnson. W.L., Rickel, J.W., and Lester, J.C. (2000). Animated pedagogical agents: Face-to-face interaction in interactive learning environments. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education. P Kay, J., (1997) Learner Know Thyself: Student Models to give Learner Control and Responsibility. Proceedings of 1997 International Conference on Computers in Education. Kuching, Malaysia. p Kerly, A., Hall, P. and Bull, S. (2006). Bringing Chatbots into Education: Towards Natural Language Negotiation of Open Learner Models. Proceedings of AI-2006, 26th SGAI International Conference on Innovative Techniques and Applications of Artificial Intelligence, Springer. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 65

66 Kolb, D.A., (1984) Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice Hall. 256pp Lindsey, R., Shroyer, J. D., Pashler, H., and Mozer, M. C. (2014). Improving student's long-term knowledge retention with personalized review. Psychological Science, Vol. 25(3), Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology. Vol. 93. pp Prochaska, J.O., and Clemente, C. D., (1992) Stages of change in the modification of problem behavior. Journal of Progress in Behavior Modification. Vol. 28, pp Qiu, F., and Hu, X., (2008) BehaviorSim: A Learning Environment for Behavior-Based Agent. Proceeding of th international conference on Simulation of Adaptive Behavior. Osaka, Japan. P Reiners, T., Wood, L. C., and Bastiaens, T. (2014). Design Perspective on the Role of Advanced Bots for Self-guided Learning. The International Journal of Technology, Knowledge and Society, 9(4), Shawar, B.A. and Atwell, E. (2007) Chatbots: are they really useful? Journal of Computational Linguistics and Language Technology, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp Shawar, B.A., Atwell, E. and Roberts, A. (2005) FAQchat as an information retrieval system. Proceedings of the 2nd Language and Technology Conference, Poznan, Poland, pp Smith, J., (2010) IQABOT: A Chatbot-Based Interactive Question-Answering System. Technical Report AJASE!!! Speedy publication service, Online archives, Paperless, web-based peer review system, Open access policy, Indexing in world known citation databases, Global circulation, Broad international readership and authorship, Online submission system, Minimum publication charge Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 66

67 Design Simulation & Study of a Current Mirror act as a Current Regulator by enhancement type MOSFET Md. Rakibul Hasan 1, Sardar Masud Rana 2, Md. Anzan-Uz-Zaman 3, Md. Nasrul Haque Mia 4, Samioul Hasan Talukder 5, Mahabubul Hoq 6, Mahamudul Hasan 7 1 Engineer, Institute of Electronics, Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Dhaka, Bangladesh 2,3,4 Senior Scientific Officer, Institute of Electronics, Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Dhaka, Bangladesh 5 Depertment of EEE, Mymensingh Engineering College, Mymensingh, Bangladesh 6 Director, Institute of Electronics, Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Dhaka, Bangladesh 7 Director General, Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Dhaka, Bangladesh ARTICLE INFO Volume 3 Number 3/2014 Issue 7 DOI: /ajase/2014/v3i7/53577 Received: Jul 09, 2014 Accepted: Jul 11, 2014 Revised: Jul 15, 2014 Published: August 10, for correspondence: sami_hasan01@yahoo.com ABSTRACT Although large electronic systems can be constructed almost entirely with digital techniques, many systems still have analog components and current mirror is the core structure for almost all analog and mixed mode circuits. It determines the performance of analog structures, which largely depends on their characteristics. In this paper, we have analyzed a basic type as well as a cascade type of current mirror using enhancement type MOSFET and study different parameters like minimum output voltage, equivalent resistance and output sink current characteristics etc. Keywords: Current Mirror, Minimum output voltage, MOSFET, Output impedance, Sink current Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None declared. How to Cite: Hasan MR, Rana SM, Anzan-Uz-Zaman M, Mia MN, Talukder SH, Hoq M and Hasan M Design Simulation & Study of a Current Mirror act as a Current Regulator by enhancement type MOSFET Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, 3, Available at: This article is is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. Attribution-NonCommercial (CC BY-NC) license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon work non-commercially, and although the new works must also acknowledge & be non-commercial. INTRODUCTION A n often-used circuit applying the bipolar junction transistor is the so-called current mirror, which serves as a simple current regulator, supplying nearly constant current to the load over a wide range of load resistances. In other word, we can define it as a two terminal circuit whose output current is independent of the output terminal Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 67

68 voltage and depends only on the input current. Generally, it is used to generate a replica of given reference current. If necessary, it can also amplify or attenuate the reference current. A current mirror can be thought as a current controlled current source. Ideally, the output impedance of a current source should be infinite and capable of generating or drawing a constant current over a wide range of voltages. However, finite value of output resistance and a limited output voltage is required to keep the device in saturation will ultimately limit the performance of the current mirror. Current mirror has been used for biasing, loading, current amplification etc. Current mirrors are employed in many applications such as operational amplifiers, analog to digital and digital to analog converters. TOPOLOGIES OF CURRENT MIRRORS BASIC CURRENT MIRROR Fig. 1 shows the basic current mirror. A current flows through M1 corresponding to VGS1. Since VGS1 = VGS2, ideally the same current, or a multiple of the current in M1, flows through M2. If the MOSFETs are of the same size, the same drain current flows in each MOSFET provided M2 stays in the saturation region (Chikani etl). The current through M1 can be given by, The output current, assuming M2 in saturation is given by Fig 1: Basic Current mirror Since V GS1=V GS2, the ratio of the drain currents is The desired output current can be obtained by adjusting W/L ratios of two devices (Chikani etl, Baker etl, 2005). Here it is required that M2 remains in saturation. Therefore, the minimum output voltage across the current mirror is given by V min=v DS(SAT)=V GS-V THN. The output resistance r 0 of current mirror is equal to output resistance of M2. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 68

69 CASCADE CURRENT MIRROR Cascade configuration is used to increase the output resistance of the current source or sink. Fig. 2 shows the diagram for this configuration. If we define ΔV as excess gate-source voltage, the gate voltage of M4 is 2(ΔV+V THN) and source voltage is ΔV+V THN. The minimum voltage across the current sink has been limited by the requirement that M4 remains in the saturation region V DS4 (V GS4 -V THN) or V D4 (2ΔV+V THN) (Chikani etl, Baker etl, 2005). This minimum voltage across the cascade current mirror is significantly larger than the minimum voltage across the basic current mirror (Chikani etl). Fig 2: Cascade current mirror SIMULATION RESULTS These proposed circuits are designed and simulated using P-Spice BASIC CURRENT MIRROR Systematic Circuit Diagram The circuit diagram of the basic current mirror has been given below. The desired output sink current is 10 µa. Fig 3: simulation diagram of basic current mirror This P-Spice model was simulated to obtain output sink current. R1 was 380 and R2 was 500 KΩ respectively. Both MOSFET was enhancement type and simulation voltage was 2.5V, 2,5V, 3V respectively. Output Sink Current The expected sink current is 10 µa. Currents flowing through M2 and M1 has shown in fig 4. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 69

70 Fig 4: Currents flowing through M1 and M2 Fig 4 shows that I D1is mirrored almost perfectly by I D2. But both the currents I D1 and I D2 are 10.46µA rather than 10 µa which had been expected. This is because we disregarded various parasitic effects in our calculation. Minimum required voltage across the current mirror The plot of sink current vs. voltage across the current mirror is shown in Fig 5. Fig 5: sink current vs. voltage across the current mirror From Fig 5, it can be observed that the output sink current is only constant for V 3-1.5V. It implies that M2 saturates when V 3-1.5V. We have to ensure this condition is satisfied to use this mirror in circuits as a current source. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT AND OUTPUT RESISTANCE CALCULATION The output resistance of the current source can be derived as per following calculations. Fig 6: Equivalent circuit for output resistence Here R_o has taken as output resistance. The calculation of R_o has shown in below. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 70

71 Fig 7: Output resistance From figure 7, it is seen that the M2 mirrors the current in M1 very accurately. M1 and M2 are ideally matched in the simulation. This is the reason the current has been mirrored accurately. But the current is not equal to 10µA; it is closer to 10.5 µa. The value for the width we got from the calculation was nm. But we simulated with width of 15nm. Further, we assumed threshold voltage to be 0.83 V and also we used a Level one MOSFET model in the simulation. We got the deviations. The performance can be improved by using the current reference circuit to supply the current of M1. In this circuit, we see that,. This would not have happened if we used a current reference. This is true for all current mirrors shown in preceding sections. The current mirrors do just what the name implies: mirroring. If there is an error in the reference current, the current mirror mirrors the error also. And in case the ratio is different in the output branch and reference branch, the error in the output current will be a multiple of the error in the reference current. The output resistance of the circuit is 14 MΩ. Thus, although the resistance is very high, it is not infinite as desired. Output resistance can be increased by cascading transistors. The current mirror if the voltage across the mirror is larger than the minimum value. CASCADE CURRENT MIRROR Systematic Circuit Diagram The cascade current circuit model has been given in fig 8. This circuit is obtained by cascading the basic current mirror to get larger output resistance Ro. The output current is as same as in basic current mirror. Fig 8: Schematic diagram for cascade current mirror. Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 71

72 This P-Spice model was simulated to obtain output sink current from cascade mode current mirror. R1 was 260 and R2 was 500 KΩ respectively. All MOSFETs was enhancement type and simulation voltage was 2.5V, 2,5V, 3V respectively. Output Sink Current Fig 9: Output Sink Current for cascade current mirror Minimum required voltage across the current mirror Fig 10: Minimum required voltage across the current mirror The output resistance of cascade mirror is in the order whereas that of basic current mirror is. The plots obtained by Spice simulations have been given below. We can see that the output resistance is much larger than that of basic current mirror. Fig 11: Output resistance for cascade current mirror Fig 11 indicates that Output resistance of cascade current mirror is much larger than current mirror. The minimum voltage required across the mirror for it to operate as a current source is larger than the basic current mirror by MIRROR WITH MULTIPLE OUTPUTS Systematic Circuit Diagram The circuit diagram for the basic current mirror with multiple output currents has shown in below.this circuit is obtained by extending the basic current mirror to give multiple outputs. Take Currents: Here we have taken all N Mos Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 72

73 Fig 12: Schematic diagrams for cascade multiple current mirrors. This P-Spice model was simulated to obtain output sink current. R was 380 and R2 to R5 was 500 KΩ respectively. All MOSFETs was enhancement type and simulation voltage was 2.5V, 2,5V, 3V respectively. By simulating this circuit output sink currents are ovserved which are plotted below. Fig 13: Output sinks currents for multiple mirror current mirror circuit Result Table The minimum required voltage plots have been shown in below. Minimum required voltage Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 73

74 Fig 14: Required output voltages DISCUSSION The minimum voltage required at the drain of each output MOSFET can be found in the same way as done for the basic current mirror and each output would give the same value and same plot as the basic current mirror. This newly designed current is free from current matching problem with transistor as it is designed based on MOSFET. It also has some limitation as the current varies with the change in output voltage as the output impedance is not infinite. CONCLUSION The output sink current for single stage current mirror is found 10.46µA rather than 10 µa which was expected. This is due to the fact that we disregarded various parasitic effects in our calculation. For cascade mode it is found 8.5 µa. Minimum required output voltage is observed -1.5V for single stage and -1V for Cascade type current mirror. Output impedance is 14 MΩ. However there is a wide range of scopes to work with the output impedance which ensure the constant output current. REFERENCES Franco Maloberti, Analog Design for CMOS VLSI systems, Kluwer Academic/ Plenum Press, Jaydeep Chikani, Parag Chaudhari, Prof. Vijay Savani, Analysis and Characterization of Various Current Mirror Topologies in 90 nm Technology, International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering. Manish Tikyani and Rishikesh Pandey, A New Low-Voltage Current Mirror With Enhanced Bandwidth, IEEE paper P. E. Allen and D. R. Holberg, CMOS Analog Circuit Design, Oxford University Press, R. Jacob Baker, Harry W. Li, and David E. Boyce (2005), CMOS Circuit Design, Layout and Simulation. Asian Journal of Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 74

75 Applied Science and Engineering (Multidisciplinary peer reviewed international journal) ISSN: X (print); (Online) ICV 5.20; SJIF 2.607; UIF Open Access Philosophy 2. Your research work will be indexed and abstracted in the internationally reputed databases and search engines immediately after publication. 3. Open Access increases the number of downloads, page views, citations etc. increasing the rate of dissemination of your research work manifold. 4. It is inferred from past researches that the papers published under "Open Access Philosophy" are four times more likely to be cited than the papers published under "Non-Open Access Philosophy" Peer Review Policy Under Open Access Philosophy, AJASE will not charge for the access of its journals. This will ensure that a large percentage of students, scholars, researchers and practitioners will be able to benefit from the research published through ABC journals. Moreover, this process will also enable authors papers to receive a higher ranking. A greater number of people being able to access and consequently refer to papers will mean a higher citations and Impact Factor for ABC journals. Following are advantages of Open Access Philosophy: 1. The full text of all issues of AJASE is freely available to anyone, online. Paperless, web-based peer review system, professional and helpful suggestions from reviewers. Articles in this journal have undergone a rigorous blind peer review system, based on initial editor screening and involving incountry and international refereeing, ensures that articles meet the highest standards of quality. Most ABC journals have ISSN with IMPACT FACTORS. It facilitates our scholars, researchers, scientists, professors, corporates, governmental research agencies, librarians etc., in a more positive way in their research proceedings. Faster Turnaround Time Many journals take many months, even years to publish research. By the time papers are published, often they become outdated. AJASE publishes papers in the shortest possible time, without compromising on quality. This will ensure that the latest research is published, allowing readers to gain maximum benefit. We provide feedback instantaneously and furnish details of the outcome within about 5-6 working days of submission of your research paper. This enables research scholars to use their time effectively on the actual research rather than on the follow ups. Strong International network & Collaboration We have exposure to wide range of industries across geographies and worldwide connect through international colleagues and thereby the recognition. We work in collaboration with extremely creditable companies, academic institutions, reputed publication units, government bodies and research firms. By publishing with us, you join ABC Global Research Community of 50,000 scientists / researchers. For Details- go through the link: Asian Business Consortium AJASE Aug 2014 Vol 3 Issue 7 Page 75