User Equilibrium in a Disrupted Network with Real-Time Information and Heterogeneous Risk Attitude

Similar documents
A L A BA M A L A W R E V IE W

P a g e 5 1 of R e p o r t P B 4 / 0 9

ATPase Regulation in the Maltose Transporter

T h e C S E T I P r o j e c t

OH BOY! Story. N a r r a t iv e a n d o bj e c t s th ea t e r Fo r a l l a g e s, fr o m th e a ge of 9

P a g e 3 6 of R e p o r t P B 4 / 0 9

H STO RY OF TH E SA NT

176 5 t h Fl oo r. 337 P o ly me r Ma te ri al s

Software Process Models there are many process model s in th e li t e ra t u re, s om e a r e prescriptions and some are descriptions you need to mode

Banking Agenda: Rising pressure

Executive Committee and Officers ( )

I M P O R T A N T S A F E T Y I N S T R U C T I O N S W h e n u s i n g t h i s e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e, b a s i c p r e c a u t i o n s s h o

We help hotels and restaurants SAYHELLO.

Table of C on t en t s Global Campus 21 in N umbe r s R e g ional Capac it y D e v e lopme nt in E-L e ar ning Structure a n d C o m p o n en ts R ea

Agenda Rationale for ETG S eek ing I d eas ETG fram ew ork and res u lts 2

Provider Satisfaction

Alles Taylor & Duke, LLC Bob Wright, PE RECORD DRAWINGS. CPOW Mini-Ed Conf er ence Mar ch 27, 2015

M Line Card Redundancy with Y-Cab l es Seamless Line Card Failover Solu t ion f or Line Card H ardw or Sof t w are Failu res are Leverages hardware Y-

CATAVASII LA NAȘTEREA DOMNULUI DUMNEZEU ȘI MÂNTUITORULUI NOSTRU, IISUS HRISTOS. CÂNTAREA I-A. Ήχος Πα. to os se e e na aș te e e slă ă ă vi i i i i

Th e E u r o p e a n M ig r a t io n N e t w o r k ( E M N )

THIS PAGE DECLASSIFIED IAW E

C o r p o r a t e l i f e i n A n c i e n t I n d i a e x p r e s s e d i t s e l f

I N A C O M P L E X W O R L D

c. What is the average rate of change of f on the interval [, ]? Answer: d. What is a local minimum value of f? Answer: 5 e. On what interval(s) is f

Fr anchi s ee appl i cat i on for m

Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST D

2 tel

EKOLOGIE EN SYSTEMATIEK. T h is p a p e r n o t to be c i t e d w ith o u t p r i o r r e f e r e n c e to th e a u th o r. PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY.

The Ind ian Mynah b ird is no t fro m Vanuat u. It w as b ro ug ht here fro m overseas and is now causing lo t s o f p ro b lem s.

I n t e r n a t i o n a l E l e c t r o n i c J o u r n a l o f E l e m e n t a r y E.7 d u, c ai ts is ou n e, 1 V3 1o-2 l6, I n t h i s a r t

Le classeur à tampons

Instruction Sheet COOL SERIES DUCT COOL LISTED H NK O. PR D C FE - Re ove r fro e c sed rea. I Page 1 Rev A

What are S M U s? SMU = Software Maintenance Upgrade Software patch del iv ery u nit wh ich once ins tal l ed and activ ated prov ides a point-fix for

I zm ir I nstiute of Technology CS Lecture Notes are based on the CS 101 notes at the University of I llinois at Urbana-Cham paign

This Specification is subject to change without notice

DETAIL MEASURE EVALUATE

Grain Reserves, Volatility and the WTO

Gen ova/ Pavi a/ Ro ma Ti m i ng Count er st at Sep t. 2004

STANDARDIZATION OF BLENDED NECTAR USING BANANA PSEUDOSTEM SAP AND MANGO PULP SANTOSH VIJAYBHAI PATEL

Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST D

Lesson Ten. What role does energy play in chemical reactions? Grade 8. Science. 90 minutes ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS

Results as of 30 September 2018

Dangote Flour Mills Plc

F l a s h-b a s e d S S D s i n E n t e r p r i s e F l a s h-b a s e d S S D s ( S o-s ltiad t e D r i v e s ) a r e b e c o m i n g a n a t t r a c

Fall / Winter Multi - Media Campaign

COMPILATION OF AUTOMATA FROM MORPHOLOGICAL TWO-LEVEL RULES

O. B. S H I M E, Q. C.

Beechwood Music Department Staff

Form and content. Iowa Research Online. University of Iowa. Ann A Rahim Khan University of Iowa. Theses and Dissertations

S ca le M o d e l o f th e S o la r Sy ste m

Spontaneous reactions occur only between the reactants shown in red.

J A D A V PUR U N IV ERS IT Y K O LK AT A Fa cu lty of En gi n eer in g & T e ch no lo gy N O T I C E

Parts Manual. EPIC II Critical Care Bed REF 2031

Ranking accounting, banking and finance journals: A note

K owi g yourself is the begi i g of all wisdo.

Geometric Predicates P r og r a m s need t o t es t r ela t ive p os it ions of p oint s b a s ed on t heir coor d ina t es. S im p le exa m p les ( i

o Alphabet Recitation

ndraising pac Raising money to care for local patients and their families

LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses

INTERIM MANAGEMENT REPORT FIRST HALF OF 2018

Boy Scout Troop 41 Bay Village, Ohio A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S. F i f t i e t h A n n i v e r s a r y C e l e b r a t i o n

SPU TTERIN G F R O M A LIQ U ID -PH A SE G A -IN EUTECTIC ALLOY KEVIN M A R K H U B B A R D YALE UNIVER SITY M A Y

gender mains treaming in Polis h practice

Building Harmony and Success

graphicdesign SPECIAL INFORMATION & DISPENSER ORDER FORM Version1.0,Updated20October2016 Date SP-4066 Encore DEF Graphics Form Manual

Trade Patterns, Production networks, and Trade and employment in the Asia-US region


V o l. 21, N o. 2 M ar., 2002 PRO GR ESS IN GEO GRA PH Y ,, 2030, (KZ9522J 12220) E2m ail: w igsnrr1ac1cn

THIS PAGE DECLASSIFIED IAW EO 12958

The Ability C ongress held at the Shoreham Hotel Decem ber 29 to 31, was a reco rd breaker for winter C ongresses.

STREET Light 120W/130W/140W/150W/185W. Provides high quality lighting and a long lifespan solution for residential,industrial areas and main roads.

h : sh +i F J a n W i m +i F D eh, 1 ; 5 i A cl m i n i sh» si N «q a : 1? ek ser P t r \. e a & im a n alaa p ( M Scanned by CamScanner

LU N C H IN C LU D E D

F48T10VHO, F60T10VHO, F72T10VHO, F96T12HO (1 LAMP ONLY) ELECTRICAL DATA (120V APPLICATION)

Last 4 Digits of USC ID:

Building Validation Suites with Eclipse for M odel-based G eneration Tools

A Rich History. AB OVE T H E F O L D: C O N S T R U C T E D by Dwight B. Heard between 1919 and HUMAN SPIDER ON TH E RADIO FI LM DE B UT

6 Lowercase Letter a Number Puzzles

IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY AND FOOD SECURITY Khalid Abdul Rahim. A World Leader in New Tropical Agriculture

THIS PAGE DECLASSIFIED IAW EO IRIS u blic Record. Key I fo mation. Ma n: AIR MATERIEL COMM ND. Adm ni trative Mar ings.

Radioactive Decay and Half Life Simulation 2/17 Integrated Science 2 Redwood High School Name: Period:

minceymarble.com 4321 Browns Bridge Road, Gainesville, GA Ph: Fx:

SPECIFICATION SHEET : WHSG4-UNV-T8-HB

THIS PAGE DECLASSIFIED IAW EO 12958

Winterization Checklist for Entrances and Loading Docks

CPU. 60%/yr. Moore s Law. Processor-Memory Performance Gap: (grows 50% / year) DRAM. 7%/yr. DRAM

02/05/09 Last 4 Digits of USC ID: Dr. Jessica Parr

Ash Wednesday. First Introit thing. * Dómi- nos. di- di- nos, tú- ré- spi- Ps. ne. Dó- mi- Sál- vum. intra-vé-runt. Gló- ri-

WELCOME. O ne Vi si on Photography i s a award wi nni ng wed d i ng photographer & wed d i ng vi d eography i n S outh Wal e s

Welcome to the Public Meeting Red Bluff Road from Kirby Boulevard to State Highway 146 Harris County, Texas CSJ No.: December 15, 2016

The Exile Began. Family Journal Page. God Called Jeremiah Jeremiah 1. Preschool. below. Tell. them too. Kids. Ke Passage: Ezekiel 37:27

M M 3. F orc e th e insid e netw ork or p rivate netw ork traffic th rough th e G RE tunnel using i p r ou t e c ommand, fol l ow ed b y th e internal

What Is Our Relationship with the Earth?

Robert Tremblay, Clerk/Director of. Service Delivery Review School Crossing Guard Program

Vlaamse Overheid Departement Mobiliteit en Openbare Werken

I cu n y li in Wal wi m hu n Mik an t o da t Bri an Si n. We al ha a c o k do na Di g.

Me n d e l s P e a s Exer c i se 1 - Par t 1

fl W12111 L5N

FOR SALE T H S T E., P R I N C E AL BER T SK

heliozoan Zoo flagellated holotrichs peritrichs hypotrichs Euplots, Aspidisca Amoeba Thecamoeba Pleuromonas Bodo, Monosiga

Transcription:

University of Massachusetts Amherst ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst Masters Theses 1911 - February 2014 2012 User Equilibrium in a Disrupted Network with Real-Time Information and Heterogeneous Risk Attitude Ryan J. Pothering University of Massachusetts Amherst Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umass.edu/theses Part of the Civil Engineering Commons Pothering, Ryan J., "User Equilibrium in a Disrupted Network with Real-Time Information and Heterogeneous Risk Attitude" (2012). Masters Theses 1911 - February 2014. 831. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.umass.edu/theses/831 This thesis is brought to you for free and open access by ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. It has been accepted for inclusion in Masters Theses 1911 - February 2014 by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. For more information, please contact scholarworks@library.umass.edu.

US ER EQU ILIBR IUM IN A D IS R UP TED NET W OR K W ITH R EA L-T IM E IN FOR M AT ION AND H ETER OGENEOUS R IS K ATT IT UDE A Th es i s P res en t ed B y RYAN J. P OTHER ING S ub m i t t ed t o t h e Grad u at e S ch o o l o f t h e Un i v ers i t y o f M as s ach u s et t s Am h ers t i n p art i al fu l fi l l m en t o f t h e req u i r em en t s fo r t h e d e gre e o f M AS TER OF C IV IL A N D ENV IR ONM EN TA L ENG INEER IN G M a y 2 0 1 2 Dep art m en t o f C i v i l an d En v i ro n m en t al En gi n eeri n g

US ER EQU ILIBR IUM IN A D IS R UP TED NET W OR K W ITH R EA L-T IM E IN FOR M AT ION AND H ETER OGENEOUS R IS K ATT IT UDE A Th es i s P res en t ed B y RYAN J. P OTHER ING Ap p r o ve d a s t o st yl e a nd c on t e nt b y: _ So n g Ga o, Ch a i r _ J oh n Co ll ur a, M e mb e r Ri c h ar d Pal me r, De p a rt me n t He a d Ci vi l a n d En vi r o n me n t al En gi n e e ri n g

DED IC AT IO N I wo u l d l i k e t o d ed i cat e t h i s t h es i s t o m y l o v i n g an d s up p o rt i v e fam i l y fo r ch eeri n g m e o n t h ro u gh t h i s i n t en s e yet v e r y r e wardi n g ex p eri en ce. S p e ci al d ed i c at i o n go es t o m y p ar en t s, S h ar o n an d G eo rge, wh o s e a d v i ce h as al wa ys s u cce e d ed i n p u s h i n g m e i n t h e ri gh t d i rect i o n, an d t o m y s i s t er, J es s i ca, wh o h el p ed gi v e m e a p erfe ct d o s e o f l i gh t -h ea rt ed en co u ra g e m en t t o m ak e m y t h es i s a fu n ex p eri en ce wi t h l o t s o f l au gh s.

AC KNOW LED GEM EN TS I wo u l d l i k e t o t h an k m y ad v i s er, D r. S o n g Gao, f or t h e p l en t i fu l an d o u t s t an d i n g ad v i ce s h e h as p ro v i d ed m e s i n ce t h e b e gi n n i n g. Her p at i en c e an d fai t h i n h er s t u d en t s i s i m m eas u rab l e an d en co u ra ged m e t o p u t m y b es t fo o t fo rward an d p ro v i d e h er wi t h m y b es t wo rk. I wo u l d l i k e t o a ck n o wl e d ge Dr. J o h n C o l l u ra fo r serv i n g o n m y t h es i s co m m i t t ee an d s h o wi n g i n t e res t i n t h e wo rk o f each s t u d en t i n t h i s p ro gr am. I wo u l d al s o l i k e t o ack n o wl ed g e t h e UM as s Tr an s p ort at i o n C en t er fo r al l o wi n g m e t o co n d u ct m y res e ar ch an d p ro v i d i n g an y as s i s t an ce o r ad v i ce wh en n e ed ed. Xu an Lu al s o d es erv es s p eci al a ck n o wl ed g em en t as he r d o ct o r at e wo rk s erv es as t h e b as i s fo r t h i s t h es i s. Hel p i n g h er s et up ex p eri m en t s es s i o n s an d an al ys i s d at a fro m t h e ex p eri m en t u l t i m at el y l e d m e t o ch o o s i n g m y t h e s i s t op i c. Fi n al l y, I wo u l d l i k e t o t h an k al l m y fri en d s fo r t h e i r s up p o rt t h ro u gh o u t m y t h es i s an d u n d ers t an d i n g wh en I wo u l d b e u n av ai l ab l e w h en m y t h es i s n e ed ed at t en t i o n. i v

ABS TR AC T US ER EQU ILIBR IUM IN A D IS R UP TED NET W OR K W IT H R EA L-T IM E IN FOR M AT ION A ND HETER O GENEOUS R IS K ATT ITU DE M AY 2 0 1 2 R YAN J. P OTHER ING, B.S., UN IVER S ITY OF M AS S AC HUS ETT S AM HER S T M.S., UN IVER S IT Y OF M AS S AC HUS ETTS AM HER S T Di rect ed b y: D r. S o n g G ao Th e t raffi c n et wo rk i s s ub j ect t o ran d o m d i s rup t i o ns, s u ch as i n ci d en t s, b ad weat h er, o r o t h er d ri v ers ran d o m b eh av i o r. A t r a v el er s ro u t e ch o i ce b eh a v i o r i n s u ch a n et wo rk i s t h u s affect ed b y t h e p rob ab i l i t i es o f s uch d i s rup t i o n s, h i s / h er at t i t u d e t o ward s ri s k, an d real -t i m e i n fo r m at i o n o n rev eal ed t raffi c co n d i t i o n s t h at co u l d po t en t i al l y red u c e t h e l ev el o f u n cert ai n t y d u e t o t h e d i s rup t i o n s. As t h e ro ad n et wo rk s p er f o rm an ce i s d e - t erm i n ed co l l ect i v el y b y al l t rav el ers ch o i c es, i t i s al s o affect ed b y t h es e fact o rs. Th i s t h es i s feat u res t h e d ev el o p m en t o f a m u l t i -cl as s user eq u i l i b ri u m m o d el b as ed o n h et ero - gen eo u s ri s k at t i t u d e d i s tri b u t i o n s an d a u s er eq u il i b ri u m m o d el b as ed o n v ari o u s d i s rup - t i o n p rob ab i l i t i es an d i n fo rm at i o n p en et rat i o n r at e s t h at can b e u s ed t o p erf o rm s en s i t i v i t y an al ys es fo r a t raf fi c n et wo rk. Th e m et h o d o f s u c ces s i v e av er a ge (M S A ) i s u s ed t o s o l v e fo r t h e eq u i l i b ri u m co n d i t i o n s. Lab o rat o r y ex p eri m en t al d at a are u s ed t o c al i b rat e t h e ri s k at t i t u d e m o d el. A s am p l e s en s i t i v i t y an al ys i s i s p e rfo rm ed t o s h o w t h e d i s r up t i o n an d i n - fo rm at i o n p en et rat i o n ef f ect s o n n et wo rk p er fo rm an ce. In i t i al cal i b r at i o n s s h o w p ro m i s - i n g res u l t s fo r ro u t e fl o w p red i ct i o n s i n a co n g es t ed n et wo rk wi t h res p e ct t o h et ero gen e - o u s at t i t u d e. W i t h res p e ct t o d i s rup t i o n p rob ab i l i t y an d i n fo rm at i o n ac ce s s, h av i n g t o o v

h i gh i n fo rm at i o n p en et ra t i o n wi l l n o t im p ro v e t h e net wo rk s p erfo rm an ce, wh i l e h av i n g a s m al l d i s rup t i o n p rob ab i l i t y can i m p ro v e t raf fi c co n d i t i o n s i n t h e n et wo rk. v i

T ABLE OF CONT ENT S PAGE ACK NOW LEDGEM ENTS......... i v ABST RACT......... v L IST OF T ABLES...... vi i i L IST OF FIGU RES......... i x CHAPT ER 1. INT RODUCT ION......... 1 1.1 Re s ea r ch Obj ec ti ve s... 2 1.2 Co n tr i bu ti o n s...... 2 1.3 Lit e ra t ur e Re vi e w... 3 1.3.1 Us er Eq ui li b ri u m M o d e l s... 3 1.3.2 Ri s k Att it u d e M o d el s... 4 1.3.3 Re al -T i me In f o r ma t i on M o d el s... 6 2. EX PERIM ENT DESIG N...... 8 3. M ODELIN G USER EQ U IL IB R IUM W IT H HET EROGENEOUS R IS K ATT IT UDE... 1 0 3.1 Us e r Eq u il ib ri u m Co n d i ti o n s wi t h He t er o ge n e o us Ri s k At t it u de... 1 0 3.2 So l ut io n Al go r it h m... 1 2 3.3 M o de l Cal ib r at io n... 1 4 3.3.1 Di sa ggr e ga t e An a l ys is... 1 4 3.3.2 Aggr e ga t e An a l ys i s... 2 6 4. M ODELIN G USER EQ U IL IB R IUM W IT H ADAPT IV E ROUT E CHOICE U NDER REAL - T IM E INFORM AT IO N......... 3 1 4.1 Us e r Eq u il ib ri u m Co n d i ti o n s wi t h Re a l -T i me In f or ma t i o n... 3 1 4.2 So l ut io n Al go r it h m... 3 3 4.3 Ap p li c at io n s...... 3 3 5. CONCLUS IONS AND FUT URE W ORK.......3 7 REFERENCES...... 4 0 v i i

LIS T OF TAB LES Tab l e P age 1. Di s ag g re gat e R es u l t s fo r S es s i o n A1... 2 0 2. Di s ag g re gat e R es u l t s fo r S es s i o n A2... 2 1 3. Di s ag g re gat e R es u l t s fo r S es s i o n A3... 2 2 4. Di s ag g re gat e R es u l t s fo r S es s i o n A4... 2 3 5. A g gre g at e R i s k At t i t u d e Di s t ri b u t i o n P red i ct i o n R es u l t s... 2 9 6. A g gre g at e P at h Fl o w P red i ct i o n s an d R M S N R es u l t s... 2 9 v i i i

LIS T OF F IG UR ES Fi gu re P age 1. Ex p eri m en t R o ad Net wo rk... 8 2. R i s k At t i t u d es wi t h R es p ect t o Ex p ect ed Di s u t i l it y...11 3. P red i ct ed R i s k P aram e t er Di s t ri b u t i o n fo r S es s i on A1...... 2 1 4. P red i ct ed R i s k P aram e t er Di s t ri b u t i o n fo r S es s i on A2...... 2 2 5. P red i ct ed R i s k P aram e t er Di s t ri b u t i o n fo r S es s i on A3...... 2 3 6. P red i ct ed R i s k P aram e t er Di s t ri b u t i o n fo r S es s i on A4...... 2 4 7. S am p l e Net wo rk fo r S en s i t i v i t y An al ys i s... 3 3 8. To t al Tr av el Ti m e An a l ys i s u n d er Vari o u s Di s ru p t i o n P rob ab i l i t i es... 3 5 9. To t al Tr av el Ti m e An a l ys i s u n d er Vari o u s M P R... 3 5 i x

C HAP TER 1 IN TR ODUC T IO N P eop l e m ak e ro u t e ch o i c es ev er y d a y i n an y gi v e n road n et wo rk f o r v ari o u s reas o n s (m i n i m i z e t rav el t i m e, av o i d co n ges t i o n, et c.). In fo rm at i o n ab o u t t h e t ra ffi c co n d i - t i o n s i n t h e n et wo rk, e.g., t h at p ro v i d ed b y an ad van ced t r av el e r i n fo r m at i o n s ys t em (AT IS ), co u l d p o t en t i al l y en ab l e t rav el ers t o m ak e b et t er ro u t e ch o i ces t h at can h el p t h em s at i s f y t h ei r go al s m o re e ffect i v el y. Ho wev e r, wh at m o s t d o n o t real i z e i s t h at t h ei r ro u t e ch o i ce an d t h e ro u t e ch o i ces o f o t h ers i n t h e n et work h av e an i m p act o n t h e o v eral l p e r- fo rm an c e o f t h e n et wo rk. Th e wel l -k n o wn Bra es s P arad o x s t at es t h at ad d i n g c ap a ci t y t o a n et wo rk wi t h t h e i n t en t i o n t o al l ev i at e p o o r t raf f ic co n d i t i o n s can act u al l y d ecr eas e t h e n et wo rk s e ffi ci en c y as t rav el ers wi l l co n s i d er m i ni m iz i n g t h ei r p ers o n al t rav el t i m e wi t h o u t co n s i d eri n g t h e e ffect s i t h as o n t h e n et wo rk. Li k e wi s e, ad d i n g m o r e i n fo rm at i o n ab o u t t raffi c co n d i t i o n s i n t h e n et wo rk co u l d c re ate s i m i l ar eff ect s. Ad d i t i o n al l y, an o t h e r i m p o rt an t fact o r t h at co u l d affect t h e p erfo rm a n ce o f a n et wo rk i s t rav el ers ri s k at t i t u d e wh en m ak i n g a ro u t e ch o i ce. Trav el ers s en s i t i v i t y t o t raffi c co n d i t i o n s o n a n et wo rk d et erm i n es wh et h er o r n o t t h e y wi l l t ak e a ch an ce o n m i n i m iz i n g t h ei r t rav el t i m e at t h e p o s s i b l e co s t of gre at er p ers o n al d e l a y, av o i d t h e s i t u at i o n al t o get h er, o r rem ai n i n d i ffe ren t t o t h e m at t er. Th es e o u t l o o k s affe ct ev er y t rav el er s ro u t e ch o i c e, a n d wh en ap p l i ed t o t h e e nt i re p op u l at i o n, h av e an eff ect o n t h e effi ci en c y o f t h e n et wo rk. 1

1.1 Research Objectives Th e t h es i s p res en t s t h e d ev el op m en t o f t wo m o d el s th at p red i ct u s er eq u i l i b ri u m co n d i t i o n s fo r a gi v en n et wo rk b as ed o n h et er o gen eou s ri s k at t i t u d e an d i n fo rm at i o n acc es s, res p ect i v el y. He t e r o ge n e o u s r i sk at ti t u de in c o rp o r at e s mu l ti p le r i sk a t ti t u de s ( r i sk - se e k i n g, r i sk - a ve r se, o r r i sk - n e u t ra l ) a c r o ss a ll use r s i n a r o u t e c h o ic e m o d e l, u nl ike h o m o ge n e o u s r i sk a t ti t ud e, wh i c h o n l y i n c o rp o r a t e s o n e. Th e ri s k at t i tu d e m o d el i s cal i b rat ed u s i n g ex p eri m en t al d at a fro m t h e ro u t e ch o i c e s t u d y p er fo rm e d i n Lu et al. (2 0 1 2 ). Th e t r av el er i n f o rm at i o n m o d el h as t h e o ret ical ap p l i c at i o n s o n t h e eff ect s o f i n fo rm at i o n acc es s an d d i s rup t i o n p rob ab i l i t y o n t he p erfo rm an c e o f t h e ro ad n et wo rk. 1.2 Contributions Th ere i s a gap i n t h e d e v el op m en t o f t raffi c eq u i l ib ri u m m o d el s i n a st och as t i c n et wo rk. Trav el ers i n h er en t l y d i ffer i n t e rm s o f th ei r ri s k at t i t u d e an d a cc e s s t o real -t i m e i n fo rm at i o n. Th ere ar e s o m e eq u i l i b ri u m mo d el s t h at i n co rp o rat e ri s k at t i t u de (h o m o ge n eo u s o r h et e r o gen eo u s ) an d t h o s e t h at i n co rp o rat e i n fo rm at i o n acces s an d d i s rup t i o n p rob ab i l i t y ( M i rch an d an i an d S o ro u s h, 1 98 7 ; Lo an d Tu n g, 2 0 0 3 ; Gao, 2 0 0 5 ; Uk k u s u ri et al., 2 0 0 6 ). Ho wev e r, t h ere h as b e e n n o res e arch o n t h e d e v el op m en t an d cal i b rat i o n o f an eq u i l i b ri u m m o d el t h at i n cl u d es bo t h h et ero gen eo u s ri s k at t i t u d es an d i n fo rm at i o n acc es s. Th e res ea rch p rop o s ed co n t ri b u tes t o t h e s t art o f t h e art b y t ack l i n g t wo i m p o rt an t s ub -p rob l em s wh o s e s o l u t i o n s can b e l at er co m b i n ed t o b u i l d s u ch a m o d el : 1. Dev el op m en t an d c al i b ra t i o n o f a u s er eq u i l i b ri u m mo d el wi t h h et ero g en eo u s ri s k at t i t u d e b as ed o n t h e ex p ect ed u t i l i t y t h eo r y. 2. Dev el op m en t o f a m o d el s h o wi n g t h e co m b i n ed effect o f i n fo rm at i o n p en e t rat i o n an d d i s rup t i o n p rob ab i l i t y o n i n d i v i d u al ro u t e ch o ice an d n et wo rk p er fo rm an ce. 2

1.3 Literature Review Fo r t h e p u rp o s e o f t h i s res ea rch, i t i s i m p o rt a n t t o res ear ch i m p o rt an t s t u d i es co n cern i n g m o d el i n g u s er eq u i l i b ri u m, h et ero ge n eo u s ri s k at t i t u d e, an d ro u t e ch o i ce m o d el s b as ed o n i n fo rm a t i o n acces s. 1.3.1 User Equilibrium Models In an y g en er al n et wo rk, t rav el ers w an t t o ch o o s e t h e ro u t e t h at b es t s u i t s t h ei r n eed s ( e. g. m i n i m i z e t ra v el t i m e, av o i d co n ges t i o n, et c.); h o wev e r, t h e y d o n o t al wa ys ch o o s e t h e b es t ro u t e. Al s o, wh i l e a ro u t e m a y n o t al wa ys b e t h e b es t ch o i c e fo r a t rav el er, i t d o es h av e a ch an ce t o b e. P rob ab i l i s t i c ch o i ce th eo r y as s u m es t h at b o t h t rav el ers w an t t o ch o o s e t h e b es t ro u t e an d each ro u t e h as a c h an ce o f b ei n g t h e b es t. Ap p l i cat i o n o f p rob ab i l i s t i c ch o i ce t h eo r y can t h en b e u s ed i n t h e d ev el op m en t o f t ra ff i c as s i gn m en t m o d el s t h at can creat e s t o ch as t i c u s er eq u i l i b ri u m (S UE) co n d i t i o n s (Dag a n z o an d S h effi, 1 9 7 7 ). Un d e r S UE, fl o w s are as s i gn ed t o ro u t es b as ed o n t h e p rob ab i l i t y t h at ea ch ro u t e wi l l b e ch o s en. Lo gi t m o d el s (Di al, 1 9 7 1 ; Fi s k, 1 9 80 ; Bel l, 1 9 9 5 ; M ah er, 1 9 9 8 ) as s u m e t h e erro r t erm s o f e ach ro u t e ch o i ce a re i n d ep en d e nt l y an d i d en t i cal l y d i s t ri b u t ed Gu m b el v ari ab l es, al l o wi n g fo r a cl o s ed fo rm p rob ab i l i t y (Ben - Ak i v a an d Le rm a n, 1 9 8 5 ). Th e d i s t ri b u t i o n as s u m p t i o n can b e t ro ub l es o m e fo r ro u te ch o i c e m o d el i n g, h o wev er, as ran d o m erro rs o f d i ff ere n t o v erl ap p i n g ro u t es ca n hav e h i gh co rr el at i o n s an d d i ffer en t v ari an c es (S h effi, 1 9 8 5 ). P rob i t m o d el s as su m e t ravel t i m e d i s rup t i o n s fo l l o w m u l t i v ari at e n o rm al d is t ri b u t i o n s, al l o wi n g fo r fl ex i b l e v ari an ce a n d co v ari an c e rel at i o n s h i p s. Th i s m ak e s t h e p rob i t m o d el eas i l y ap p l i cab l e fo r ro u t e ch o i ce p r ed i ct i o n s. Th e m o d el l ack s a cl o s e d fo rm p rob ab i l i t y l i k e l o git m o d el s an d c an h av e l i m i t ed l arg e- 3

s cal e ap p l i c at i o n s d u e t o ru n n i n g c o s t s (Ni e, 2 0 11 ). Th es e m o d el s i n t h ei r o ri gi n al fo rm s, h o w e v er, d o no t t ak e i n t o ac co u n t d i s rup t i o n s t o t h e n et wo rk ex p l i ci t l y an d t h e u n d er l yi n g t rav el t i m es a re d et erm i n i s t i c. 1.3.2 Risk Attitude Models Th e n u m b er o f s t u d i es d o n e o n m o d el i n g ri s k at t i t ud e i s ex t en s i v e, yet t h e ev al u at i o n m et h o d s fo r r i s k at t i t u d e s t u d i es can res u l t i n d i fferen t cl as s i fi cat i o n s o f ri s k at t i t u d e (S l o v i c 1 9 6 4 ; MacC ri m m o n an d Weh ro n g 1 9 9 0 ). A r eas o n fo r t h i s i s b ecau s e ri s k at t i t u d e m a y n o t b e d et ect ab l e b y j u s t l o o k i n g at peop l e s ch o i ces. Ot h er s i t u at i o n al fact o rs c an cau s e d i ffe ren t cl as s i fi cat i o n s (S ch o em ak er 1 9 9 0 ). Web e r et al. (1 9 9 7 ) s u rm i s e fro m t h ei r s t u d y t h at t h ree m et h o d s t h at can h el p m eas u re ri s k at t i t u d e i n v ari o u s wa ys : ex p ect ed u t i l i t y, r e l at i v e ri s k at t i t u d e, an d p ercei v ed ri s k at t i t u d e. Ut i l i t y i s t h e rel at i v e b e n efi t o r u s efu l n es s an ob j ect h as fo r an i n d i v i d u al. W h en ap p l i ed t o a s et o f ri s k y al t ern at i v es, s u ch as a ga m b l e, t h i s b en efi t i s k n own as ex p ect ed u t i l i t y. W h en an al yz i n g a s et o f ch o i ces, i t i s h ypo t h es i z ed t h at an i n d i vi d ual wi l l p i ck an al t ern at i v e t h at m ax i m i zes t h e ex p ect ed u t i l i t y. The at t i t u d e o f an i n d i v i d u al can b e d et erm i n ed b y t h e ch o i c es m ad e d u ri n g ea ch ga m b l e prop o s ed an d fo rm u l at i n g a u t i l i t y fo rm u l a fo r t h at p ers o n. P rat t (1 9 6 4 ) an d Arro w ( 1 97 1 ) h el p ed d efi n e t h e c h aract eri z at i o n o f ri s k at t i t u d es t h ro u gh u s e o f u t i l i t y fo rm u l as. Th ere ar e t wo as s u m p t i o n s as s o ci at ed wi t h ex p ect ed u t i l i t y t h e o r y: 1 ) ri s k p r efe ren c es can b e d es cri b ed b y a u t i l i t y fu n ct i o n k n o wn o n l y b y t h e m o d el er an d 2 ) at t i t u d es t o ward s ri s k can b e r at i o n al i z ed b y t h e ex p ect ed u t i l i t y fu n ct i o n. Ex p ect ed u t i l i t y c an b e v er y u s e fu l i n i d en t i f yi n g an d d es c ri b i n g p eop l e s ch o i c e p at t ern s o v er a s p eci fi ed p e ri o d, bu t q u an t i f yi n g t h e p e rs o n s ri s k at t i t u d e 4

i s rel at i v el y i n s i gn i fi can t (Web er et al. 1 9 9 7 ). On e t h eo r y t h at c an i l l u s t rat e t h e d i s ad v an t a g es in ex p ect ed u t i l i t y t h eo r y i s cal l e d cu m u l at i v e p ro s p ect t h eo r y (C P T), wh i ch s t at es t h at i n d i v i d u al s h av e a b i as ed p ercep t i o n o f t h e p rob ab i l i t i es i n a gi v en ch o i ce. Ac co rd i n g to C PT, p eop l e t en d t o o v er-es t i m at e s m al l p rob ab i l i t i es an d u n d er-es t i m at e l arg e p rob a bi l i t i es (Kah n n em an an d Tv ers k y 1 9 7 9 ). R el at i v e ri s k s h o ws t h at t h e d i ff eren ces i n ri s k a t t i t u d e wi t h res p ect t o e x p ect ed u t i l i t y m a y b e a r es u l t o f t h e d i ffer en ces i n m argin al v al u es. R i s k p referen c es m a y r em ai n u n ch an ged wi t h t h i s ap p ro ach, r es u l t i n g i n a m o re st ab l e p er cep t i o n o f ri s k. Us i n g rel at i v e ri s k can m eas u re p eop l e s at t i t u d es t o wards u n c ert ai n o u t co m es rat h er t h an cert ai n o u t co m es (D ye r a n d S ari n 1 9 8 2 ). P ercei v ed ri s k at t i t u d e i s t h e as s u m p t i o n t h at deci s i o n m ak ers a re at t r a ct ed o r rep el l ed b y al t ern at i v e c h o i ces t h at t h e y fe el are ri s k i er t h an ch o i ces t h ey fe el are l es s ri s k y (Web e r an d Bo t t o m 1 9 8 9 ). P ercei v ed ri s k at t i tu d e h as s i gn i fi can t l y s t ro n ge r cro s s - s i t u at i o n al s t ab i l i t y t h an b o t h ex p ect ed u t i l i t y and rel at i v e ri s k. Th i s m et h o d i s p refer ab l e fo r m eas u ri n g p eop l es t en d en c y t o ch o o s e b et w een ri s k y an d s afe ch o i c es (Web er an d M i l l i m an 1 9 9 7 ). W h i l e t h ere are n u m ero u s s t u d i es o n v ari o u s mo d el s t o d et erm i n e p eop l es ri s k at t i t u d e, t h ere i s n o t m u ch res e arch d et ai l i n g t h e cal i b rat i o n o f v a ri o u s ri s k at t i t u d e d i s t ri b u t i o n s t o a fi n d a gen e ral t ren d i n t rav el e r b eh av i o r. Th er e are, h o wev er, m an y ex p eri m en t s wi t h res u l t s t h at s h o w a p o s s i b l e p at t ern i n t rav el er ri s k at t i t u d e. Web er an d Bo t t o m (1 9 8 9 ) d et erm i n ed p eop l es ri s k at t i t u d es b y ex am i n i n g t h ei r ch o i ces o n t h eo ret i cal l o t t eri es wi t h v ari o u s p rob ab i l i t i es. U s i n g C P T, t h e y fo u n d t h at 7 6 % o f al l p art i ci p an t s we re ei t h e r ri s k -av ers e o r ri s k -n eu t r al. An o t h er s t u d y, d e P a l m a an d P i card 5

(2 0 0 5 ), co n cl u d ed t h at 6 6 % o f p art i ci p an t s w ere r i sk -av ers e o r ri s k -n eu t ral an d 3 3 % wer e ri s k -s eek i n g. Web er an d M i l l i m an (1 9 9 7 ) u s ed ex p ected u t i l i t y t h eo r y t o ch ar act eri z e t rav el er ri s k at t i t u d e i n o n e o f t h ei r ex p eri m en t s. Th e ex p eri m en t req u i red p art i ci p an t s t o ch o o s e v a ri o u s co m m u t i n g t i m es fo r a t r ai n t o d et erm i n e t h ei r u t i l i t y fu n ct i o n s fo r ri s k as s es s m en t. B y ob s e rv i n g t h e s h ap e o f e ach p art i ci pan t s u t i l i t y fu n ct i o n, i t was fo u n d t h at a m aj o ri t y o f p art i ci p an t s wer e ri s k -av e rs e o r ri s k -n eu t r al wh en t h e co m m u t i n g t i m es were s l o wer t h an o r eq u a l t o t h e av er a ge. W h en c o m m u t i n g t i m es we re fa s t er o r eq u al t o t h e av e ra g e, h o w ev er, a m aj o ri t y o f p art i ci p an t s were fo u n d t o b e ei t h er ri s k -s eek i n g ri s k - n eu t ral. Th e r es u l t s o f t h es e s t u d i es an d o t h ers (Bru i n s m a et al. 1 9 9 9 ; Lam an d S m al l 2 0 0 1 ) s h o w a s t ro n g i n d i cat i o n t h at p eop l e t en d t o b e ri s k -av e rs e. 1.3.3 Real-Time Traveler Information Models P re-t ri p an d en -ro u t e i n fo rm at i o n can al l o w t rav ele rs t o p l an an d ad ap t t h ei r t ri p t o eff ect i v el y m eet t h ei r n e ed s. Tr av el e rs wh o h av e acc es s t o t ra ffi c i n fo rm at i o n are m o r e l i k el y t o fo l l o w t h e p ro v i d ed p re-t ri p an d en -r o u t e t raffi c i n fo rm at i o n (Ab d el -At y an d Ab d al l a, 2 0 0 6 ). En - ro u t e r eal -t i m e t r av el i n fo r m at io n al l o ws t rav el ers t o m ak e ro u t e ch o i ces at d eci s i o n n o d e s b as ed o n cu rren t co n d i t i on s t o av o i d d el a y (M cqu een et al., 2 0 0 2 ). Wi t h rega rd s t o e n -ro u t e s h o rt -t e rm ch o i c es, p ro v i d i n g q u al i t at i v e i n fo rm at i o n i s m o re b en efi ci al fo r t r a v el ers t h an q u an t i t at i v e i n fo rm at i o n (Ab d el -At y an d Ab d al l a, 2 0 0 6 ). Uk k u s ru i et al. (2 0 0 6 ) co n cl u d ed t h at an y chan ge i n u s er b eh av i o r d u e t o re al -t i m e i n fo rm at i o n m u s t b e acco u n t fo r i n t raffi c as s i gn m en t m o d el s. 6

M o d el s t h at i n co rp o rat e i n fo rm at i o n acces s can g i v e fu rt h er i n s i gh t i n t o trav el e r ro u t e ch o i ce b eh av i o r. Gao et al. (2 0 0 8 ) d e s cri b e two ro u t e ch o i c e m o d el s t h at i n co rp o rat e re al -t i m e i n fo rm at i o n : ad ap t i v e p at h m od el s an d s t rat e gi c ro u t e ch o i ce m o d el s. Ad ap t i v e p at h mo d el s as s u m e ro u t e ch o i c es are a s eri es o f p at h ch o i ces at ev er y d eci s i o n n o d e. Th i s can acco u n t fo r d i v ers i o n f ro m t h e i n i t i al p at h b ut d o es n o t p l an ah ead fo r up co m i n g i n fo rm at i o n. S t rat egi c ro u t e ch oi ce m o d el s a re b as ed o n a ru l e t h at m ap s s t o ch as t i c n et wo rk co n d i t i o n s t o ro u t i n g d eci si o n s. Th i s m o d el as s u m es t rav el e rs h av e ex p ect at i o n s fo r e n -ro u t e t r av el i n fo rm at i o n. It al s o as s u m es t h a t t rav el e rs a re p ro act i v e wh en p l an n i n g ro u t es. 7

C HAP TER 2 EXP ER IM EN T DES IGN Ex peri m ent R oad Net work Th e d ev el op m en t an d ca l i b rat i o n o f t h e u s er eq u i l ib ri u m m o d el s were b a s ed o n d at a ob t ai n ed fro m t h e ro u t e ch o i ce ex p eri m en t featu red i n Lu et al. (2 0 1 2 ). Th e ex p eri m en t was co m p o s ed o f ei gh t s es s i o n s, e ach i n vo l v i n g t h e p art i ci p at i o n o f 1 6 i n d i v i d u al s. Du ri n g ea ch s es s i o n, p art i ci p an t s w er e i n s t ru ct ed t o m ak e ro u t e ch o i c es f ro m wo rk t o h o m e i n t h e n et wo rk, s h o wn i n Fi gu re 1, o n a d a y-t o -d a y b a s i s. Th e y w ere s h o wn t h e free- fl o w t rav el t i m es o f each ro u t e b ef ore t h e s t art o f t h e ex p eri m en t an d were t o l d t h at t h e h i gh wa y h as a d i s rup t i o n p rob ab i l i t y o f 0.2 5. W h i l e n o t i n fo rm ed o f t h e d u rat i o n o f t h e ex p eri m en t t o p rev en t b i as, p art i cip an t s m ad e ro u t e ch o i ces fo r 1 2 0 d a ys. Aft er ev e r y p art i ci p an t m ad e a ro u t e ch o i ce fo r a gi v en d a y, t h e y w ere s h o wn t h e t rav el t i m e fo r t h ei r ch o s en ro u t e. 8

Th e ex p eri m en t was s p l i t i n t o t wo s cen ari o s, each co m p o s ed o f fo u r s es s i o n s. Th e fi rs t s cen a ri o, k n o wn as t h e i n ci d en t cas e, h ad p art i ci p an t s m ak e ro u t e c h o i ces wi t h o u t b ei n g i n fo rm ed i f t h e h i gh w a y w as ex p eri en ci n g an in ci d en t t h at d a y t h a t wo u l d great l y i n creas e t h e t rav el t i m e o n t h at p at h. Th e s eco n d scen ari o, k n o wn as t h e i n f o rm at i o n cas e, p ro v i d ed an i n fo rm at i o n n o d e fo r t rav el e rs w h o ch o se t h e co n n e ct o r. On ce at t h e i n fo rm at i o n n o d e, p a rt i ci p an t s wer e t o l d wh et h e r o r n o t t h e h i gh w a y wa s ex p eri en ci n g s o m e fo rm o f d i s rup t i o n t h at d a y. Th e p art i ci p an t s were t h en ab l e t o m ak e an i n fo rm ed d eci s i o n b as ed o n t h e t r affi c co n d i t i o n s o n t h e h i gh wa y. 9

C HAP TER 3 M ODE LING US ER EQU ILIBR IUM W ITH HE TER OGENEOUS R IS K ATT ITUDE Th e fo l l o wi n g s e ct i o n d et ai l s t h e d ev el op m en t o f t he u s er eq u i l i b ri u m m o d el t h at i n co rp o rat es h et ero g en e o u s ri s k at t i t u d e i n i t s p red i ct i o n s. Th i s ch ap t er wi l l d et ai l t h e co n d i t i o n s fo r u s er eq u i l i b ri u m wi t h res p ect t o h etero gen eo u s ri s k at t i t u d e, t h e s o l u t i o n al go ri t h m u s ed t o d eri v e t h e u s er eq u i l i b ri u m, an d t h e as s u m p t i o n s u s ed t o cal i b rat e t h e m o d el. 3.1 User Equilibrium Conditions with Heterogeneous Risk Attitude Th e co n v en t i o n al u s e r eq u i l i b ri u m co n d i t i o n i n a st at i c an d d et erm i n i s t i c n et wo rk i s gen e ral i z ed t o t h e s t o ch as t i c n et wo rk wi t h h et ero gen eo u s u s er ri s k at t i t u d e (wi t h n o real -t i m e i n fo rm at i o n ) i n t h i s t h es i s as fo l l o ws : a t u s er eq u i l i b ri u m, al l u s ed p at h s h av e t h e s am e an d m i n i m u m ex p ect ed d i s u t i li t y fo r each ori gi n -d es t i n at i o n p ai r an d ri s k at t i t u d e cl as s. Fo r t h e n e t wo rk i n Fi gu re 1, u s er e q u i l i b ri u m fo r t h e i n ci d en t cas e i s m et wh en t h e ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t i es fo r al l t h ree p at h s (t h e art e ri al, h i gh w a y, a n d d et o u r) ar e eq u al an d m i n i m i z ed. It was p rev i o u s l y s t at ed t h at wh en an i n d i v i d u al faces a s et o f ch o i ces, h e/ s h e wi l l p i ck an al t ern at i v e t h at m ax i m iz es t h e ex p ect ed u t il i t y. Ho w ev e r, i n t h e co n t ex t o f ro u t e ch o i ces i n a ro ad n et wo r k, t rav el ers ar e as s u m ed t o m i n i mi z e t h ei r ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y, o r t h e rel at i v e co s t a ch o i c e h as fo r an i n d i v i d u al. Th e re as o n ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y i s u s ed i n s t ead o f ex p ect ed u t i l i ty i s t h at re ga rd l es s o f c h o i ce, a ro u t e i s as s o ci at ed wi t h a co s t (e. g. t rav el t i m e). 1 0

Fi gu re 1: R i s k At t i t udes wi t h R espect t o Ex pect ed Di s ut i l i t y Th e cu rv at u re o f t h e d i s u t i l i t y fu n ct i o n o f ro u t e t rav el t i m es wi l l ch ara ct e ri z e t h e t rav el er s ri s k at t i t u d e as s h o wn i n Fi gu r e 2. Th e ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y fo r a t rav el er o n a ch o s en ro u t e i s c al cu l at e d b y t h e f o l l o wi n g eq u at i on : minutes Th e c-v al u e i n t h e eq u at i o n h el p s d en o t e a t r av el e r's ri s k at t i t u d e. R i s k n eu t ral i t y can b e rep r es en t ed wi t h d i s u t i l i t y as t h e s t rai gh t l i n e s h o wn i n Fi gu r e 2, a n d t h e m argi n a l d i s u t i l i t y i s co n s t an t. Un d er ri s k n eu t ral i t y, a t rav el er 's ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y fo r a ro u t e i s eq u al t o t h at ro u t e 's t rav el t i m e. Th er efo r e, p eop le wh o a re ri s k n eu t ral wi l l h av e a c- v al u e o f 1.0. Trav el ers e x h i b it i n g a ri s k -av ers e at t i t u d e can b e rep r es en t ed b y t h e co n v ex fu n ct i o n, wh e re t h e m argi n al d i s u t i l i t y i s i n c reas in g. As t h e m argi n al d i s u t i l i t y i s 11

i n creas i n g, ri s k - av e rs e t r av el ers wi l l h av e c -v al u e s gr eat e r t h an 1.0. Th e co n cav e fu n ct i o n b es t rep res en t s ri s k -s e e k i n g b eh av i o r, as t h e m argi n al d i s u t i l i t y i s d ecre as i n g. R i s k s eek i n g i n d i v i d u al s wi l l h av e c-v al u es t h at are gr eat er t h an z ero b u t l es s t h an 1.0. Th e c- v al u e i s a p ar am et er t h at m u s t b e cal i b rat ed f ro m dat a. No t e t h at u s er eq u i l i b ri u m i s u s u al l y u s ed t o d es cri b e a s t e ad y s t at e o f a t raffi c n et wo rk. In a n et wo rk s u b j ect t o ran d o m cap a ci t y red u ct i o n, h o w t o d efi n e a s t ead y s t at e i s b y i t s el f a res e ar ch q u es t i o n. In t h i s t h es i s, t h e m ean t rav el t i m e (o r d i s u t i l i t y) t ak en o v er a l a rge n u m b er o f d a ys i s u s ed t o d es cri b e t h e s t at e o f t h e n et wo rk, as b y d efi n i t i o n t h e t rav el t i m e i s a r an d o m v ari ab l e d i s t ri b u t ed o v er d a ys, an d o n e c an n o t ex p ect a fi x ed t rav el t i m e fro m d a y t o d a y. 3.2 Solution Algorithm Th e s o l u t i o n al go ri t h m u s ed t o d e ri v e eq u i l i b ri u m ro u t e ch o i ces (t r affi c fl o ws ) i n t h e n et wo rk i s b as ed o n t h e m et h o d o f s u c ces s i v e ave ra ges (M S A). M S A i s an i t erat i v e p ro ces s t h at wi l l h eu ri s t i cal l y s o l v e fo r eq u i l i b riu m co n d i t i o n s (S h effi an d P o wel l 1 9 8 2 ). Th e al go ri t h m wi l l ru n m u l t i p l e i t erat i o n s an d d i s tri b u t e fl o ws t o an op t i m al p at h wi t h t h e s m al l es t ex p ect ed d i s u t i l it y fo r ea ch ri s k gro up. Th e fi rs t i t erat i o n fo r a g i v en ri s k gro up b e gi n s b y l o o k i n g at t h e f ree fl o w t rav el t i m e o f ev er y p at h i n t h e n et wo rk. Th e p at h wi t h t he l o wes t fre e fl o w t rav el t i m e wi l l t h en h av e t h e en t i re d em an d o f t h e n et wo rk. Fo r t h e n ex t i t erat i o n, t h e ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y fo r each p at h wi l l b e cal cu l at ed. Th e p at h wi t h t h e l o wes t ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y wi l l t h en b eco m e t h e n ew op t i m al ro u t e ch o i ce. Fl o ws f ro m al l p at h s ar e t h en re- a l l o cat ed b y t h e fo l l o wi n g al go ri t h m. 1 2

1. For All Paths: 1 h h h 2. Aggregate Re-allocated Flow: h h 3. Add Aggregate Flow to Optimal Routing Policy: + h 1 3

On ce al l t h e fl o ws h av e b een re -al l o cat ed t o t h e opt i m al ro u t e ch o i ce fo r a gi v en ri s k gro up, t h e ex p ect e d d i s u t i l it y fo r ea ch ro u t e ch o i ce wi l l b e re- c al cu l at ed. Th e d i ffer en ce b et ween t h e c u rren t an d p rev i o u s i t erat io n s ex p ect ed d i s u t il i t i es fo r each ro u t e ch o i ce wi l l b e cal cu l at ed. If t h e ab s o l u t e v al u e o f t h i s d i fferen ce i s l es s t h an o r eq u al t o t h e d es i red l i m i t acro s s a l l p at h s fo r each ri s k gro up, t h en t h e M S A an al ys i s wi l l s t op an d eq u i l i b ri u m co n d i t i o n s a re m et. Ot h erwi s e, t h e i t erat i o n p ro ces s wi l l b e c arri ed t h ro u gh u n t i l t h e l i m it co n d i t i o n is m et. 3.3 Model Calibration Two d i ffe ren t t yp es o f cal i b rat i o n s wer e p e rf o rm ed t o d ev el op ri s k at t i t u d e p aram et e rs an d d i s t ri b u t i o n s. Th e fi rs t is a d is ag gre gat e an al ys i s t o d eri v e a ri s k p aram et e r fo r ea ch p art i ci p an t b as ed o n t h e i nd i v i du al l ev el ro u t e ch o i ces o v er t h e d u rat i o n o f t h e ex p eri m en t. Th e s eco n d cal i b rat i o n i s an ag gre g at e an al ys i s t h at cal i b rat es t h e ri s k p aram et er d i s t ri b u t i o n am o n g al l t h e p art ici p an t s o f a gi v en s es s i o n b as ed o n ag g re gat e p at h fl o ws av e ra ged o v er t h e s t e ad y p e r i od o f t h e ex p eri m en t. Th e d i s a g gr e gat e an al ys i s i s u s ed t o p ro v i d e s up p o rt fo r t h e ri s k p aram et e r d i s t ri b u t i o n as s u m p t i o n s i n t h e ag g re gat e an al ys i s. Du e t o a l i m i t ed n u m b er o f co m bi n at i o n s o f p aram e t er v al u es, t h e d i s ag gr e gat e an al ys i s i s n o t yet co m p l et e b u t s t i l l ab l e t o p ro v i d e res u l t s. 3.3.1 Disaggregate Analysis Th e d i s a g gr e gat e cal i b r at i o n an al ys i s at t em p t s t o ch ar act e ri z e an ex p eri m en t s es s i o n s ri s k at t i t u d e d i s t ri b u t i o n b y ch a ract e ri z i n g ea ch p art i ci p an t s ro u t e ch o i c e b eh av i o r an d as s i gn i n g a c-v al u e b as ed o n t h ei r d ail y ro u t e ch o i ces. T h i s i s d o n e b y 1 4

as s es s i n g wh at c-v al u e a n d ad d i t i o n al p aram et e rs p ro d u ce t h e m o s t ac cu ra t e ro u t e ch o i c e p red i ct i o n s fo r each i n d i v i d u al. Th e i n d i v i d u al mo del i n g i s d o n e b y an al yz i n g each d a y s ro u t e ch o i ce, cal cu l at i n g t h e ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y f o r each p o s s i b l e ro u t e c h o i ce fo r e ach d a y, cal cu l at i n g t h e p rob ab i l i t y o f an i n d i v i d u al ch o o s i n g a s p eci fi c ro u t e u s i n g a l o gi t m o d el, an d cal cu l at i n g t h e l i k el i h o o d t h e p red i ct e d ro u t e ch o i c es ar e co rre ct b as ed o n t h e gi v en p aram et ers. Th e i np u t fi l e co n t ai n s t h e ro u t e ch o i ce i n fo rm at i on o n a p art i ci p an t o f an ex p eri m en t s es s i o n, i n clu d i n g t h e p art i ci p an t s r o ut e ch o i ce, t h e ro u t e s t rav el t i m e, an d wh et h er o r n o t t h ere w as an i n ci d en t o n t h e h i gh wa y fo r e ach d a y o f t h e ex p eri m en t. Al l 6 4 p art i ci p an t s i n t h e i n ci d en t cas e w er e an al yz ed t h ro u gh t h i s m et h o d. W h en a p art i ci p an t s fi l e i s re ad i n t o t h e p ro gra m, t h e y ar e as s i gn ed wi t h t h re e p aram et e rs t h at wi l l v ar y t h ro u gh o u t t h e cal i b r at i on : a c-v al u e, an art eri al b i as (α ), an d a p rob ab i l i s t i c s cal e ( λ). T h e c -v al u e wi l l h el p d et er m i n e h o w ri s k -s eek i n g o r ri s k -av ers e an i n d i v i d u al i s. Th e art eri al b i as wi l l cap t u re an y bi a s fo r t h e s afe art e ri al n o t acco u n t ed fo r b y t h e ex p ect ed u t i l i t i es, fo r ex am p l e, t o o ffs et an y co m p l i cat i o n s cau s ed b y p art i ci p an t s s el ect i n g t h e art e ri al j u s t b ecau s e l es s cl i ck s w ere req u i re t o fi n i s h t h at d a y s ro u t e ch o i ce s el ect i o n. Fi n al l y, t h e l o g i t m o d el s cal e i s u s e d to d es cri b e t h e s en s i t i v i t y o f t h e ch o i ce t o t h e d i ffer en c e i n ex p ect e d d i s u t i l i ti es. On ce al l t h e p aram et er s are as s i gn ed t o an i n d i v i du al, t h e fi rs t s t ep i n t h e cal i b rat i o n al go ri t h m i s t o an al yz e t h ei r ro u t e ch o i ces fo r ea ch d a y o f t h e e x p eri m en t. Fo r each d a y o f t h e ex p eri m en t, t h e m o d el d et erm i n es whet h er o r n o t t h e art e ri al, d et o u r, o r t h e h i gh wa y w as ch o s en t h at d a y. If t h e h i gh w a y was ch o s en o n t h at d a y, t h e m o d el al s o n o t es wh et h er o r n o t t h e re was an i n ci d en t o n t h e hi gh w a y t h at d a y. W h i l e n o t i n g each 1 5

d a y s ro u t e ch o i ce, t h e m o d el wi l l al s o reco rd t h e t o t al n u m b er o f t i m es a ro u t e h as b een ch o s en b y an i n d i v i d u al as t h e m o d el an al yz es t h e rem ai n i n g d a ys o f t h e e x p eri m en t. Th e m o d el wi l l al s o reco rd t h e t o t al n u m b er o f t i m es the h i gh w a y w as ch o s en wh en t h ere w as an i n ci d en t an d wh en t h e re was n o i n ci d en t. Aft er t h e d a y s ro u t e ch o i ce was reco rd ed, e ach ro u t e s av era g e ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y was cal cu l at ed fo r t h at d a y. C al cu l at i n g t h e ex p ected d i s u t i l i t y fo r t h e a rt eri al an d t h e d et o u r fo r each d a y u s e t h e s am e p ro c ed u re wh i l e cal cu l at i n g t h e ex p ect e d d i s u t i l i t y fo r t h e h i gh w a y i s m o re co m p l ex. If t h e a rt eri al o r t h e d et o u r w as ch o s en, t h en t h e ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y i s cal cu l at ed n o rm al l y u s i n g t h e ch o s en r o u t e s t rav el t i m e. If t h e ro u t e h as b ee n ch o s en o n p r ev i o u s d a ys, t h en i t s ex p ect ed d i s u t i l it y i s av e ra g e wi t h i t s p rev i o u s d i s u t i l i ti es t o cre at e a n e w av e ra ge ex p ect ed d i s u ti l i t y fo r t h at d a y. If a ro u t e h as n o t b een ch o s en at al l, t h en i t s ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y i s cal cu l a t ed u s i n g i t s fr ee- fl o w t r a v el t i m e. Th i s i s u n d er t h e as s u m p t i o n t h at p art i ci p an t s rem em b er b ei n g s h o wn e ach ro u t e s fr ee -fl o w t rav el t i m e at t h e b e gi n n i n g o f t h e s es s i o n. Th e r ou t e s ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i ty b as ed o n i t s free -fl o w t rav el t i m e wi l l s erv e as i t s av er a ge ex pect ed d i s u t i l i t y u n t i l i t h as b een ch o s en b y t h e i n d i v i d u al. If an i n d i v i d u al ch o o s es a p r ev io u s l y u n ch o s en ro u t e fo r t h e fi rs t t i m e, t h en i t s ex p ect ed d i s u t il i t y wi l l b eco m e t h e n ew aver a ge ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y, as t h e i n d i v i d u al h as m o re ac cu rat e i n fo rm at i o n o n t h e r o ut e t h an t h ei r i n i t i al as s u m p t i o n. W h i l e t h e p ro ces s fo r an al yz i n g t h e h i gh w a y s av er a ge ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y i s s i m i l ar t o t h e p r ev i o u s m et h o d u s ed fo r t h e art e ri al an d t h e d et o u r, t h e i n ci d en t p rob ab i l i t y fo r t h e n et wo rk cre at es d i ffer en t co n d it i o n s fo r cal cu l at i n g t h e ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y. As t h e h i gh w a y i s s t o ch as t i c, t h ere a re fo u r co n d i t i o n s fo r c al cu l at i n g t h e ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y fo r t h e h i gh wa y, d ep en d i n g o n th e n u m b er o f t i m es t h e h i gh w a y w as 1 6

ch o s en an d wh et h e r o r n o t an i n ci d en t o c cu rr ed o n th at d a y. If t h e h i gh wa y h as n o t b een ch o s en, t h en t h e ex p ect e d d i s u t i l i t y i s cal cu l at ed u s i n g t h e fo l l o wi n g fo rm u l a: 1 + h h h h Th e fre e-fl o w t r av el t i m e (2 0 m i n u t es ) wh en t h e re was n o i n ci d en t w as p ro v i d ed fo r p art i ci p an t s at t h e b egi n n i n g o f t h e ex p eri m en t, b u t t h ere was n o d es cri p t i o n t o d es cri b e h o w l a rge t h e fr ee-fl o w t r av el t i m e wo u l d i n creas e i f t h ere w as a n i n ci d en t. It i s as s u m ed t h at p art i ci p an t s co u l d t h i n k o f s om e u n reas o n ab l y l o n g t rav el t i m e t o v i s u al iz e t h e h i gh w a y d u ri n g an i n ci d en t, s o u s i n g an i n ci d e nt free -fl o w t r av el t i m e o f 1 2 0 m i n u t es was ch o s en fo r an al ys i s. Th e ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y cal cu l at ed wi t h t h es e fr ee-fl o w t r av el t i m es i s u s ed as t h e av er a ge ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y u nt i l t h e h i gh wa y i s ch o s en. On ce t h e h i gh wa y i s c h o s en, t h e ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y i s cal cu l at ed u n d er t h ree p o s s i b l e co n d i t i o n s. On e co n d i t i o n i s i f t h e h i gh w a y h as o n l y b een ch o s en wh en t h er e h as n o t b een an i n ci d en t, wh ere t h e ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i ty eq u at i o n i s : 1 + h h h h 1 7

Th e n ex t co n d i t i o n i s i f t h e h i gh wa y h as o n l y b e e n ch o s en wh en t h e re h as b een a n i n ci d en t. It s eq u at i o n i s g i v en as : 1 + h h h h Fi n al l y, t h e l as t ex p ect e d d i s u t i l it y eq u at i o n fo r t h e h i gh wa y ap p l i es w h en t h e h i gh wa y h as b e en ch o s en d u ri n g an i n ci d en t an d n o i n ci d en t at l eas t o n ce, cal cu l at ed wi t h t h e fo l l o wi n g eq u at i o n : 1 + Th e an al ys i s o f a p art i ci p an t s ro u t e ch o i ce an d t he cal cu l at i o n o f i t s resp ect i v e ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y co n t i n u e t h ro u gh o u t t h e d u rat i on o f t h e 1 2 0 -d a y ex p e ri m en t, b u t t h e ro u t e ch o i ce p red i ct i o n p ro ces s o n t h e m o d el s t art s o n t h e 3 1 st s et o f ca l cu l at i o n s. Th i s rep res en t s t h e en d o f t h e ex p l o rat i o n p eri o d p ar t i ci p an t s ex p eri en ce d u ri n g t h e fi rs t 3 0 d a ys o f t h e ex p eri m en t. Th e n ex t 9 0 ro u t e ch o i c e an al ys es fo r t h e i n d i v i d u al re fl ect t h e i d ea t h at i n d i v i d u al s are m ak i n g ro u t e ch o i ces t h a t refl ect t h ei r ri s k at t i t u d e. Th e fi rs t s t ep i n t h e p r ed i ct i o n p ro ces s i s t o d et erm i n e t h e p rob ab i l i t y t h at an i n d i v i d u al wi l l ch o o s e a s p eci fi c ro u t e. A l o gi t m od el i s u s ed t o h el p d et erm i n e t h e p rob ab i l i t y a ro u t e wi l l b e ch o s en ea ch d a y. Th e p rob ab i l i t i es ar e b as ed o n t h e p rev i o u s d a y s av er a ge ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y fo r ea ch ro u t e. T h e art e ri al b i as i s ad d ed t o t h e av er a ge ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y t o d et erm i n e i f t h e i n d i v i d u al wi l l b e m o re p referen t i al t o t h e art eri al 1 8

t h an t h e o t h e r ro u t es i f e v er yt h i n g el s e i s eq u al. Th e av era g e ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y fo r ea ch ro u t e i s m u l t i p l i ed b y t h e s cal e an d n e gat ed as t h e ex p ect ed d i s u t i l i t y i s an a s s o ci at ed co s t an d s up p o s ed t o b e m i n im i z ed. Th e l o gi t m o d el eq u ati o n s fo r ro u t e ch o i c e p rob ab i l i t i es are s h o wn b el o w: + + + + + + Th e n ex t an d fi n al s t ep i n t h e p red i ct i o n p ro ces s is t o cal cu l at e t h e i n d i v i d u al s l o g l i k el i h o o d t h at t h e y wi l l ch o o s e t h e ch o s en ro u t es o v er t h e 9 0 -d a y p er i o d, fo u n d b y s u m m i n g t h e n at u ral l o g s o f t h e l i k el i h o o d o f ch o o si n g t h e ch o s en ro u t es fo r ea ch o f t h e 9 0 d a ys i n t h e p red i ct i o n p eri o d. Th e g en er al fo rm ul a fo r t h i s cal cu l at i o n i s s h o wn b el o w: ln h ; 31 h Th e t o t al l o g l i k el i h o o d i s u s ed t o co m p are h o w well t h e d i s a g gre g at e an al ys i s p red i ct s an i n d i v i d u al s r o u t e ch o i ce. Th e cl o s er t h e l o g l i k el i h o o d i s t o z e ro (l i k el i h o o d cl o s er t o 1 ), t h en t h e b et t er t h e m o d el h as p red i c ted an i n d i v i d u al s ro u t e ch o i ce wi t h a gi v en s et o f ri s k p ar am et er, art eri al b i as an d s cale p aram et ers. Th e l i k el i h o o d fo r an 1 9

i n d i v i d u al i s cal cu l at ed f o r al l p o s s i b l e p ar am et er gro up i n gs b et we en t h e c -v al u e, a rt eri a l b i as, an d l o gi t s c al e. Th e c-v al u e i n t h e g ro up i n g wi t h t h e t o t al l i k el i h o o d th at i s cl o s es t t o z ero wi l l b e u s ed t o rep res en t t h at p ers o n i n co n s t ru ct i o n o f t h e ri s k at t i t ud e d i s t ri b u t i o n fo r t h e en t i re ex p eri m en t s es s i o n. Calibration Results Th i s s ect i o n p res en t s t h e d i s ag g re g at e an al ys i s res u l t s fo r ea ch s es s i o n i n t h e i n ci d en t cas e. Tab l es 1, 2, 3, an d 4 b el o w s h o w s t he i n d i v i d u al ri s k an a l ys i s o f ev er y p art i ci p an t i n s es s i o n s A1, A2, A3, an d A4, res p ect i v el y. Fo r ea ch i n d i v i d u al, t h ei r p red i ct ed c-v al u e, art eri a l b i as, l o gi t s cal e, an d o p t i m al l i k el i h o o d are p re s en t ed. Fi gu res 3, 4, 5, an d 6 res p ect i v el y p res en t t h e ri s k d i s t rib u t i o n s o f A1, A2, A 3, an d A4, as p red i ct ed b y t h e d i s a g g re gat e an al ys i s. Tab l e 1 : Di s a g gre g at e R e s u l t s fo r S es s i o n A1 User c α λ Likelihood A1u1 1.1 100.00 0.01-71.015 A1u2* 0.5-1.00 0.10-97.484 A1u3 0.3 0.10 10.00-76.009 A1u4 0.5 1.00 1.00-73.76 A1u5 1.2 100.00 0.10-88.091 A1u6 1.1-100.00 0.01-61.373 A1u7 0.1 100.00 0.01-94.58 A1u8* 0.1 0.01 10.00-97.766 A1u9 0.1-100.00 0.01-83.63 A1u10 0.2 0.10 10.00-83.894 A1u11 1.1 100.00 0.10-38.977 A1u12 1.1-100.00 0.01-81.69 A1u13 1.5-100.00 0.01-66.419 A1u14 0.1-100.00 0.10-40.016 A1u15 0.4-1.00 1.00-59.839 A1u16 1.5-100.00 0.01-72.741 2 0

5 4 Frequency 3 2 A1 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 C-Value Fi gu re 2 : P red i ct ed R i s k P aram et er Di s t ri b u t i o n fo r S es s i o n A1 Tab l e 2 : Di s a g gre g at e R e s u l t s fo r S es s i o n A2 User c α λ Likelihood A2u1 0.1 0.01 100.00-61.714 A2u2 0.2-0.01 10.00-90.85 A2u3 0.1 0.01 100.00-65.245 A2u4 1.5 Multiple 0 A2u5 0.1-0.01 100.00-36.338 A2u6 0.1 0.01 100.00-86.421 A2u7 1.3-10.00 0.01-87.131 A2u8 0.2-0.01 100.00-22.23 A2u9 0.1-0.01 100.00-49.374 A2u10 0.2-0.10 10.00-70.882 A2u11 0.1 0.01 100.00-63.436 A2u12 0.1 0.00 100.00-80.765 A2u13 0.2-0.01 10.00-95.251 A2u14* 0.2 0.01 10.00-97.142 A2u15 0.1 0.01 100.00-53.104 A2u16 0.2 0.10 10.00-92.195 2 1

Frequency 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 C-Value A2 Fi gu re 3 : P red i ct ed R i s k P aram et er Di s t ri b u t i o n fo r S es s i o n A2 Tab l e 3 : Di s a g gre g at e R e s u l t s fo r S es s i o n A3 User c α λ Likelihood A3u1* 0.1-1.00 0.10-98.377 A3u2 0.2 0.10 100.00-51.013 A3u3 0.1 0.01 100.00-83.189 A3u4 0.1 0.01 100.00-77.056 A3u5 0.1 0.01 100.00-90.821 A3u6 0.1-100.00 0.01-92.631 A3u7* 0.1 0.01 100.00-98.051 A3u8 0.1 0.00 100.00-68.283 A3u9 0.1 0.01 100.00-92.173 A3u10* 0.4 0.01 1.00-97.323 A3u11* 0.1 0.01 100.00-97.825 A3u12 0.2 0.10 100.00-30.365 A3u13 1.1-100.00 0.01-82.819 A3u14 0.1 0.00 100.00-76.574 A3u15* 0.1 0.10 10.00-97.059 A3u16 0.2 0.10 100.00-51.013 2 2

12 10 Frequency 8 6 4 A3 2 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 C-Value Fi gu re 4 : P red i ct ed R i s k P aram et er Di s t ri b u t i o n fo r S es s i o n A3 Tab l e 4 : Di s a g gre g at e R e s u l t s fo r S es s i o n A4 User c α λ Likelihood A4u1 1.1-100.00 0.01-83.292 A4u2 0.4 0.10 10.00-60.820 A4u3 0.1 0.01 100.00-53.473 A4u4* 0.1-10.00 0.01-98.591 A4u5 0.2-0.01 10.00-92.416 A4u6 0.2-0.10 10.00-78.570 A4u7 0.1 0.01 100.00-71.072 A4u8 0.3-0.10 10.00-70.831 A4u9 0.1 0.00 100.00-75.368 A4u10 0.2 0.00 10.00-94.804 A4u11 0.3-1.00 1.00-86.208 A4u12 0.4 0.01 10.00-32.285 A4u13 0.1-0.10 10.00-86.167 A4u14 0.1 0.00 100.00-75.998 A4u15 0.1 0.01 100.00-55.028 A4u16 0.3 100.00 10.00-53.484 2 3

8 7 6 Frequency 5 4 3 A4 2 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 C-Value Fi gu re 5 : P red i ct ed R i s k P aram et er Di s t ri b u t i o n fo r S es s i o n A4 Th e res u l t s s u g ges t t h at m o s t o f t h e i n d i v i d u al s i n t h e s es s i o n a re ri s k -s ee k i n g, b u t t h ere ar e cert ai n i n d i v i d u al s wh o s e op t i m al l i k el i ho o d s s eem ed q u es t i o n ab l e, as i n d i cat ed b y t h e s t a rred u s er IDs. Th e re as o n t h es e l i k el i h o od s are q u es t i o n ab l e i s t h at t h ei r v al u es are s o cl o s e t o t h e l o g l i k el i h o o d o f a p u rel y ran do m gu es s (as s i gn i n g 1 / 3 ch o i c e p rob ab i l i t y t o ea ch al t ern at i v e), -9 8.8 7 5 1, s u g ges t i n g t h at t h e m o d el d o es n o t ex p l ai n t h e p art i ci p an t s b eh av i o r b et t er t h an a p u r el y ran d o m gu es s. Th ere a re a fe w reas o n s as t o wh y t h e d i s a g g re ga t e cal i b rat i o n m a y n o t co rrect l y ch ara ct eri z e t h e i n d i v i d u al ri s k at t i t u d es fo r al l p art i ci p an t s, p a rt i cu l arl y f o r s es s i o n A3. Th e s i m p l es t ex p l an at i o n co u l d b e t h at t h e ran g e o f v al u es fo r t h e a rt eri al b i as an d t h e l o gi t s cal e i s l i m i t ed. Th e art eri al b i as r an ges b et ween 1 0 0 an d -1 0 0 i n i n crem en t s o f fact o rs o f 1 0, i n cl u d i n g z ero. Th e l o gi t s c al e h as t h e s am e r an ge an d i n crem en t s, ex cl u d i n g z ero. Th e op t i m al b i as an d s c al e v al u e s co u l d b e wi t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f t h e ran g e o r ev en o u t s i d e t h e as s u m ed ran ge. Ex p eri m en t at i o n wi t h t h e ran g e o f v al u es co u l d 2 4