Lecture 12 Ion Implantation Chapter 9 Wolf and Tauber 1/98
Announcements Homework: Homework 3 is due at the start of class on Thursday (Nov 9 th ). Will be returned one week from Thursday (16 th Nov). 2/98
Announcements Term Paper: You are expected to produce a 4-5 page term paper on a selected topic (from a list). Term paper contributes 25% of course grade. You should have all been assigned your first-choice topic. The term paper should be handed in at the start of class on Tuesday 21 st November. Details / regulations are on the course website. The term paper will be returned to you in class on Thursday 30 th November. 3/98
Useful Links Berkley: http://wwwinst.eecs.berkeley.edu/~ee143/fa10/lectures/lec_08.pdf Georgia Tech: http://alan.ece.gatech.edu/ece6450/lectures/ece6450l5- Ion%20Implantation.pdf MIT: http://wwwmtl.mit.edu/researchgroups/hackman/6152j/sp_2004/lectures /sp_2005_lecture07.pdf 4/98
Lecture 12 Review of Diffusion. Ion Implantation. Ion Implantation Process. Implantation Parameters. Depth Profiles. Issues with Implantation. Implant Monitoring Techniques. Safety Issues. 5/98
Review of Diffusion 6/98
What we know about Diffusion Dopants diffuse by substitutional and interstitial mechanisms. These have different activation energies (E 0 ) and pre-factors (D 0 ). Fick s laws allows us to calculate concentrations as a function of time and distance due to diffusion. These have analytical solutions in standard cases where D is constant: Limitless Source of Dopant pre-deposition (erfc solution). Single dose of Dopant drive-in (Gaussian solution). 7/98
What we know about Diffusion Everything about the motion is encapsulated in the diffusion coefficient: D. D changes as result of: Doping. Oxidation. Internal electric fields. If D is anisotropic or is a function of concentration, the diffusion equation does not have easy solutions and must be solved analytically. 8/98
Pre-Deposition Solution In this case assume there is an infinite supply of impurity. C C 0 0 z Error function C z, t = C 0 erfc z 2 Dt Complementary error function erfc x = 1 erf x erf x = 1 π න e x2 d x x x 9/98
Drive-In Solution The initial impurity is described as a dose at a single position (z = 0). Mathematically it is described as a delta-function: C Δz = 0 Gaussian C z, 0 = f z = Qδ z න C z, 0 dz = Q 0 z C z, t = Q πdt exp z2 4Dt 10/98
Forming a Device By Diffusion Start with n-type wafer, N D, to create collector. Carry out pre-deposition and drive-in to create: p-type base region. pn junction formed. Pre-deposition of final n emitter region. However, little design flexibility: doping profiles consist of super-imposed Gaussians centered at the surface. N D 11/98
Solubility Limits The maximum amount of a dopant that can dissolve in the Si is given by the solid solubility limits C 0. This adds a another design constraint. 12/98
Problems with Diffusion Doping Cannot exceed solid solubility. Difficult when desiring light doping level. High dopant concentration at the surface. These are limitations on what we can achieve. Ion implantation is preferred over diffusion doping: Depth of implant can be controlled. A low dose can be introduced (10 11 to 10 18 cm -3 ). But significant damage results. Low thru-put high cost. 13/98
Comparison of Diffusion and Ion Implantation Distribution peak is below surface for ion implantation. 14/98
Ion Implantation 15/98
Ion Implantation A beam of energetic dopant ions is fired into the surface of the wafer. Energies are 5-200 kev. This will lead to implantation (burial) of the ions into the substrate. Dopant atoms are generated (from feed gas, e.g. BF 3, AsH 3, PH 3, or heated solid source), then ionized in arc chamber by electrons from hot filament. Ions are accelerated by an E-field (after selecting the desired species q/m, using a magnet), focused using electrostatic lenses. Ions impact substrate (a bend removes neutrals) in a raster pattern. 16/98
Ion Implantation An ion implanter is used to dope silicon. Doping is done by implanting ions of Phosphorus, Boron or Arsenic on the wafers. Beam of ions Beam of ions Si Wafer Ions implanted from the ion beam damage the lattice. 17/98
Anneal: Activation & Diffusion Annealing is a process where the wafer is heated to repair the damage to the lattice. Heating Lamp Si Wafer The dopant ions become part of the crystal lattice (Activation) The ions also spread out during anneal (Diffusion) 18/98
Stopping Power An implanted ion loses energy by two types of interaction: Elastic collisions with nuclei (S n ). Inelastic collisions with electrons (S e ). Where: de dx = N S n E S e E N is the number of target atom. E is the energy of the incident ions. x is the depth. S i is the stopping power (ev cm 2 ). 19/98
Stopping Power Ion projected range (R p ) is the vertical distance traveled before ion stops moving: Stopping power due to elastic collisions with nuclei R p = 1 N න 0 E 0 de S n E S e E Stopping power due to inelastic collisions with electrons The standard deviation quantifies the spread in the ion distribution: R p 2 3 R M 1 M 2 p M 1 M 2 Mass of incident ion Mass of stationary ion 20/98
Nuclear Stopping Power This process is due to Coulomb Scattering (assumed elastic). E 1, M 1 b θ φ M 2 Incident ion (E 1, M 1 ) interacts with nucleus of stationary ion (M 2 ). b = impact parameter. Energy transferred by incoming ion: ΔE = E 1 1 sin 2 φ cos θ sin φ cos φ sin θ 21/98
Nuclear Stopping Power E 1, M 1 b θ φ M 2 The angles depends on masses on b. The maximum energy transfer when b = 0, φ = 0 (head-on collision): ΔE = E 1 4M 1 M 2 M 1 M 2 2 ΔE Τ M 2 M 1 22/98
Nuclear Stopping Power Displacement force: Displacement force on ion E 1, M 1 F Q 1Q 2 r 2 b θ φ The impulse on the ion is the integral over time when the ion is close to the nucleus: M 2 t Impulse = න F t dt = p 0 23/98
Nuclear Stopping Power Displacement force: Displacement force on ion E 1, M 1 F Q 1Q 2 r 2 b θ φ At 100 kev an ion of 15 amu has velocity, v ion 10 6 m/s. So fast that ion is far past nucleus before nucleus can displace in response to Coulomb force. Nuclear scattering is weak at high ion velocity only significant when ion slows down. M 2 24/98
Electronic Stopping Power Ions interact with electrons as well, but we describe the interaction as inelastic. Non-Local: Ion experiences drag due to free or polarizable electrons. E 1, M 1 E No change in direction. Only viscous damping. 25/98
Electronic Stopping Power Ions interact with electrons as well, but we describe the interaction as inelastic. Local: Passing ion causes internal electronic transitions or ionization: E 1, M 1 e e E 1, M 1 Energy loss and momentum transfer. Because electrons can respond to fields up to optical frequencies electronic losses are more significant at higher ion velocities. S e E v ion E 1Τ2 26/98
Stopping Power in Substrate With each interaction, ion loses some energy. It travels through a vertical projected range R p before stopping. Ion loses energy by: Vicious Drag Electron excitation Nuclear collisions More effective at larger v ion More effective at smaller v ion R p 27/98
Annealing after Ion Implantation Most damage is done by nuclear interactions. About 15 ev needed to displace Si from lattice site, create vacancy/interstitial pair Most damage occurs near R p and over a width of R p. Self interstitial Vacancy R p 28/98
Depth Profiles Knowing S e and S n, can determine R p and R p. R p In Si In Si R p In Si In GaAs 29/98
Composition Profile for Ions If the depth is z, the impurity concentration c(z) is (approximated by a Gaussian). Where: c z = c p exp c p is the peak concentration. R p is the projected range. z R p 2 2 R p R p is the standard deviation of the projected range (vertical straggle or spread). The implanted dose is given by Q (#/cm 2 ): Q = න c z dz Q = 2π R p c p 2 30/98
200 kev Implants in Si Concentration distribution for implantation of various ions at 200 kev. Greater tendency of lighter ions to backscatter m B < m P < m As < m Sb Greater velocity longer R p. Less loss / collision larger R p. 31/98
Distorsion of Dopant Profiles Concentration distribution for implantation of boron at various energies: Gaussian Composition profiles are not always perfect Gaussians; there can be a skew or distortion (kurtosis) making the profile asymmetric. 32/98
Distorsion of Dopant Profiles Can deposit at several different energies to get ~ uniform dopant distribution: 33/98
Ion Implantation Process 34/98
Ion Implanter The major sub-units of an ion implanter are shown below. ION IMPLANTER 3) Analyzer Gas Source 2) Extractor 4) Acceleration Column 1) Ion Source 5) Resolving Unit 6) Process Chamber Wafers All the parts of an implanter shown here are under high vacuum. 35/98
Implanter Tool Gas source 1) Ion Source 2) Extractor 3) Analyzer 4) Acceleration Column Outside view Operator Ion Beam Load Lock User Interface (Computer) 5) Resolving Unit 6) Process Chamber Top view 36/98
Ion Source: Operation (1) The filament is heated. (2) Electrons are boiled off the heated filament. (3) The electrons are attracted to the positive wall. (4) On their way to the wall they hit neutrals and ionize them. (4) Gas Inlet (3) (2) e - () (-) (1) Repeller Plate Slot for extracting ions Heated Filament Electron from heated filament Neutral atom (B) Positive ion (B ) 37/98
Ion Source: Operation Many different ions are made when the gas is ionized. Some possible ions from BF 3 are shown here. Boron trifluoride Electron from filament B BF BF 2 Neutral Molecule BF 3 BF 3 F F 2 Now we want to move the ions out of the source and towards the wafer 38/98
Extractor The extractor extracts ions from the ion source by providing them a lower voltage. Ions fall down the energy hill. Now we have a beam of ions that is moving towards the wafer. We want to make sure that we get the ions we need. Extractor 90 KV 60 KV 58 KV 90 KV Extraction Assembly 58 KV 60 KV Extracted beam Ions fall down the energy hill 39/98
Beam Blowup Lets take another look at the ion source and extractor. Only positive ions come out of the source. 90 KV Extraction Assembly Extracted beam The beam will spread or blow up because like charges repel each other. Ion Source 58 KV 60 KV 90 KV 60 KV Ions fall down the energy hill 58 KV 40/98
Blowup: Control The blow up is controlled in the extractor. The first plate is at 58 KV. It is called the suppresser plate. The second plate is at 60 KV. It is called the extractor plate. 90 KV Extraction Assembly Extracted beam 58 KV 60 KV Electrons ---- Ion Divergent part of beam 90 KV 60 KV 58 KV 41/98
Blowup: Control 58 KV 60 KV --- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Ions in the divergent part of the beam hit the extractor plate at high speeds. They knock off electrons from the plate which prevent beam blow up. The negative charge of the electrons balances the positive charge of the ions and thus prevents beam blowup. 42/98
Analyzer The analyzer makes sure that only the ions we need reach the wafer. It magnetically filters out the specified ions from the other ions in the ion beam. Separation is based on the difference in mass. Analyzer Lighter ions Heavier ions Radius of the arc: r = 1 B 1mV ext q Analyzing Magnet Beam Guide Magnetic Field Potential Selected ions 43/98
Accelerating Column Positive ions gain energy as they fall down the energy hill. Accelerating column 90 KV 60 KV 58 KV Ion source Extractor Ion beam from analyzer Analyzer 60 KV 0 KV Accelerator 0 KV Kinetic Energy 44/98
Resolving Unit Magnets in the resolving unit focus the beam onto the wafer. Magnets Ion beam from accelerator Ion beam gets focused Now the ion beam is focused. We are ready to send it onto the wafer. 45/98
Process Chamber The wafers are in the process chamber. They are held on a large disk, called the implant disk. The implant disk can be tilted to allow implant at different angles. Implant disk Ion beam from resolving unit Motor Wafers 46/98
Scanning The ion beam must be scanned over the wafer surface to cover the entire area. There are three methods of scanning: Mechanical. Electrostatic. Magnetic. Ion beam Y-direction Wafer x-direction 47/98
Mechanical Scanning The ion beam is fixed and the wafers are moved. Advantages: Used for high energy and high current processes. Ion beam is efficiently used. More wafers can be placed on the implant disk. Fixed ion beam Implant disk X-scan Y-scan 48/98
Mechanical Scanning The ion beam is fixed and the wafers are moved. Disadvantages: Low throughput. Movement of machinery generates particle contaminants. Fixed ion beam Implant disk X-scan Y-scan 49/98
Electrostatic Scanning The ion beam is scanned by deflecting it across the wafer. Advantages: Fast scan. Good uniformity. No particulate contaminants. (-) (-) () () 50/98
Electrostatic Scanning The ion beam is scanned by deflecting it across the wafer. Disadvantages: Ion beam falls on the wafer at an angle and forms shadows. This is called shadowing. (-) (-) () () Mask Ion beam at an angle Substrate Desired shape of implant Shadowing affects shape of implant 51/98
Magnetic Scanning Magnetic scanning is similar to electrostatic scanning except we use magnets instead of charged plates to scan the beam. Advantages: Fast scan. Good uniformity. No particulate contaminants. Ion beam Horizontal scan magnets Vertical scan magnets Wafer 52/98
Magnetic Scanning Magnetic scanning is similar to electrostatic scanning except we use magnets instead of charged plates to scan the beam. Disadvantages: Ion beam falls on the wafer at an angle and forms shadows. This is called shadowing. Ion beam Horizontal scan magnets Wafer Vertical scan magnets 53/98
Implantation Parameters 54/98
Implant Parameters Input Parameters: Time Current Energy Implant Angle Implant Species Implant Tool Output Parameters: Dose Uniformity Dose Depth 55/98
Implant Time Implant time can be controlled by: Adjusting scan speed of the scanning mechanism. Adjusting the rotation speed of the implant disk. Many semiconductor processes require implant times of a few seconds (4-10 sec). (-) () () (-) Scanning mechanism Implant disk 56/98
Implant Current Implant current is a measure of number of ions in the ion beam. Typical ranges are from around 10 µa to 30 ma. More ions are present at high currents. Current also controls how many ions get implanted. - - - - - - - - - - - - More Ions = High Current Extractor Assembly 57/98
Implant Energy Implant energy is measured in electron-volts (ev) Typical ranges are from 0.2-2000 kev. Ions with more energy go deeper into the crystal. 80 KV 60 KV 0 KV Energy gained by ion: 60 KeV 80 KeV 58/98
Projected Range of n- and p- Type Dopants in Si Vs Energy Range is the peak concentration. Sigma is the standard deviation in concentration. 59/98
Implant Angle Range is the peak concentration. (1) (2) Wafer surface Ions in beam 1 will go quite deep into the crystal before stopping. Ions in beam 2 will not go as far. 60/98
Summary Input parameter Effect on process Time # of dopant ions (dose) Current # of dopant ions (dose) Energy Depth of dopant ions Angle Depth of dopant ions 61/98
Depth Profiles 62/98
Dose Dose is the concentration of dopant ions. It is given as number of ions per square centimeter (#/cm 2 ). Semiconductor devices may require anywhere from 10 11 ions/ cm 2 to more than 10 16 ions/ cm 2. Dose depends on implant current and time. Dose uniformity depends on proper scanning and implant angle. Y-direction Ion Beam Ion beam Wafer x-direction 63/98
Number of ions Dose Depth Dopant profile tells us about the concentration of ions at varying depth from the surface. A Gaussian profile is sometimes used: Ions c z = c p exp z R p 2 2 R p 2 Average depth DR P R P Distance from surface 64/98
Dose Depth After Annealing Number of ions During annealing the wafer is heated to repair the damage to the lattice. The ions spread out during anneal (Diffusion): C t = D 2 C x 2 Distance from surface Number of of ions ions Wafer surface Distance from surface Distance from surface 65/98
Resist Mask and Cure Photoresist or oxide acts as a mask to cover part of the wafer from the ion beam. Ion Beam Photoresist protected unprotected wafer protected 66/98
Resist Mask and Cure If the resist is not strong enough it will break up when ions hit it. When resist breaks up, it can form: Particulates (solid products) that contaminate and cover the implant region. Gas products that neutralize the ion beam. Neutralization slows down and scatters the ionic species Resist is cured by exposing it to UV light forming new bonds. 67/98
Channeling In single crystal lattices there are some directions in which the ions can go for long distances without hitting atoms in the lattice. Ions Single crystal Top view 68/98
Channeling There are several directions in a Si crystal can lead to channeling: (110) (100) (111) 69/98
Channeling Solution Change the angle at which ions enter the crystal. Ions in beams 1 & 2 will channel through the lattice. Ions in beam 3 will hit the atoms or bonds in the lattice and stop early. (1) (2) (3) (100) tilted Wafer surface 70/98
Issues with Implantation 71/98
Wafer Charging Wafer charging happens when ions accumulate on insulating surfaces like resist. The resist gets a net positive charge which repels incoming ions. This affects the dose uniformity across a wafer. Good implant No wafer charging Poor implant Wafer charging 72/98
Wafer Charging: Solution An electron shower is used to neutralize wafer charge. A shower of electrons balances out the positive charge on the wafer. Electrons boil off the filament. The electrons hit the target and produce more electrons. Target Electrons from filament (1) (2) Filament Electrons from target The electrons from the target move towards the wafer and neutralize its positive charge. (3) Positively charged wafer 73/98
Contaminants Contamination in ion implantation can come from: Metallic contaminants: When high speed ions hit metal surfaces they knock off metal atoms (Fe, Ci, Cr, Ni). Cross contaminants: Cross contamination occurs when the same implant tool is used to implant different species. Cross contamination is avoided by using an Argon ion beam in-between implant processes. Particulates. 74/98
Metallic contaminants When high speed ions hit metal surfaces they knock off metal atoms. This causes metal contamination. Holder clips (Metal) Ion beam Knocked off metal atom Ion Implant disk Metal 75/98
Metallic contaminants Metal atoms knocked off from metal parts deposit on the wafer and affect is properties. Iron, copper, chromium and nickel are common contaminants. Metallic contaminants can be reduced by using graphite fixtures on the implant disk. Knocked off metal atom Ion Metal 76/98
Cross Contaminants Cross contamination occurs when the same implant tool is used to implant different species. Boron Phosphorous If a tool is used to implant one species (e.g. boron) then boron may stick to the walls with time. Now, if this tool is switched to use for phosphorous implant, those ions will knock off the boron from the walls and deposit them on the wafer. 77/98
Cross Contaminants Cross contamination is avoided by using an Argon ion beam in-between implant processes. Phosphorous Boron Argon NO PROCESSING 78/98
Implant Monitoring Techniques 79/98
Implant Monitoring Methods We can find out if an implant process is working properly by measuring: How many ions were implanted (dose). How uniformly the ions were implanted (dose uniformity). The Four Point Probe and the Thermal Wave methods are used to measure dose and dose uniformity. 80/98
Four Point Probe Current flows through the outer two probes. The inner probes measure voltage. V Current The resistance and voltage N-type between the two inner probes implanted layer depends on the number of ions implanted. P-type The more ions, the lower the substrated Four Point Probe Tip resistance and voltage. The change in voltage is calibrated to read number of ions. The tip is moved across the wafer to determine uniformity of implant. 81/98
Four Point Probe Advantages: Simple method. Well understood and characterized. Disadvantages: Necessary to anneal the wafers before they can be probed. Causes some damage to the surface. (used on test wafers) N-type implanted layer P-type substrated Current V Four Point Probe Tip 82/98
Thermal Wave Probe The thermal wave probe is used to measure dose and dose uniformity across the wafer. It works as follows: (1) An Argon laser is focused on the wafer. (2) This heats up the wafer and changes its reflectance. The change in reflectance is a measure of dose. Helium-Neon Laser (3) (4) Original Beam Original Beam Wafer (1) (2) Argon Laser Reflected Beam Photodetector 83/98
Thermal Wave Probe The thermal wave probe is used to measure dose and dose uniformity across the wafer. It works as follows: (3) A Helium-Neon (He-Ne) laser is focused on the same spot. Helium-Neon Laser (3) (4) Original Beam Original Beam (1) Argon Laser (4) The reflected light Wafer (2) from the He-Ne Laser is compared with the original beam to measure change in reflectance. Reflected Beam Photodetector 84/98
Thermal Wave Probe Advantages: No damage to surface. Can be done immediately after implant. No need of annealing. Process wafers can be used. Disadvantages: Helium-Neon Laser Original Beam Original Beam Wafer Sensitive to condition of lasers. (3) (4) (1) (2) Argon Laser Reflected Beam Photodetector 85/98
Thermal Wave Probe Disadvantages: No damage to surface. Can be done immediately after implant. No need of annealing. Process wafers can be used. Helium-Neon Laser (3) (4) Original Beam Original Beam Wafer (1) (2) Argon Laser Reflected Beam Photodetector 86/98
Safety Issues 87/98
Safety: Chemical Chemical hazard arises from the following sources: Source gases. Pump and tool cleaning. Cryo-pump regeneration. The source gases get adsorbed on the tool and pumps. So cleaning, servicing and regeneration must be done by trained operators in a properly exhausted room. CHEMICAL 88/98
Chemical Hazard: Source Gas Operators must be aware of the specific effects of the source gases being used on their tools. They should also know the emergency procedures properly. Operators must read the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) of the source gases being used. The MSDS is a document that provides the following important information: Chemical Identity Ingredients Physical characteristics Chemical characteristics Physical Hazards Health Hazard Special protection Special precautions Additional information 89/98
Source Gas: Arsine Name of gas: Arsine Chemical formula: AsH 3 [for N-type As implant] Odor: Mild garlic odor Immediate exposure symptoms: Headache, Dizziness, Nausea Stomach pain, Bloody urine Immediate toxic danger: High Fire hazard: Moderate Dangerous exposure dose: 0.2 mg/m 3 over a 40 hour working week 90/98
Source Gas: Phosphine Name of gas: Phosphine Chemical formula: PH 3 [for N-type P implant] Odor: Decaying fish Immediate exposure symptoms: Restlessness with tremors, Nausea Fatigue, Drowsiness Immediate toxic danger: High Fire hazard: High Dangerous exposure dose: 0.4 mg/m 3 over a 40 hour working week 91/98
Source Gas: Boron Trifluoride Name of gas: Boron Trifluoriide Chemical formula: BF 3 [for P-type B implant] Odor: Sharp, stinging, irritating, biting Immediate exposure symptoms: Severe irritation to lungs, eyes & skin Immediate toxic danger: High Fire hazard: None Dangerous exposure dose: 3.0 mg/m 3 over a 40 hour working week 92/98
Other Gases Other gases used in the implant process are: Sulfur hexafluoride. Argon. Gas handling is the main safety issue with these gases. Sulfur hexafluoride is used in the implant tools to avoid sparking due to high voltages. It is a colorless, odorless, non-toxic and nonflammable gas. High quantities can cause breathing difficulties. Argon (inert) is used to clean the implant tools. 93/98
Safety: Radiation The main radiation hazard comes from X-rays. High speed ions knock off electrons from parts of the tool. These electrons hit metallic parts and make X-rays. Extraction Assembly 90 KV Extracted beam Electrons ---- ---- Ion 58 KV 60 KV 90 KV 60 KV 58 KV h RADIATION 94/98
X-Rays: Prevention X-ray hazard is avoided by good design of the tool. Areas on which electrons may fall are coated with materials that make less X-rays. The suppresser plates, used in the extraction assembly reduce the number of electrons hitting metal parts of the tool. Radiation shields are placed around parts where X- 58 KV 60 KV rays are generated. --- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - suppresser plate 95/98
Safety: High Voltage High voltage is used in the implant tool to generate and move ions. The voltages used range from: 5V in the filament power supply to 180,000 V in the acceleration unit. The operator should be aware of the location of high voltage hazards and the safety procedures. HIGH VOLTAGE 96/98
Safety: Mechanical The main mechanical hazard can be the implant disk. It rotates at very high speeds (900 rpm). If it breaks off it can cause serious damage and injury. Implant disk MECHANICAL 97/98
Safety: Mechanical Other sources of mechanical hazards are: Moving valves, drive belts, drive shafts etc. Mechanical hazard from the implant disk is avoided by: Sensors that turn it off if it is not rotating properly. Steel frames inside the tool to stop it from tearing out of the tool in case it gets loose. In general all moving parts should be electrically disabled before service. 98/98