BIOLOGY STUDY GUIDE Science Is an organized way of using evidence to learn about the natural world Observation The process of gathering information about events or process in a careful, orderly way. Data The information gathered from measurements and observations. Inference Is a logical interpretation based on prior knowledge or experiences. Hypothesis Is a proposed scientific explanation for a set of observations. Spontaneous Generation Is a theory that life can arise from nonliving matter (air, water, soil) Also know as ABIOGENSIS Controlled Experiment A type of experiment where only one variable is changed at a time Manipulated Variable A variable that is deliberately changed
Responding variable A variable that is observed and that changes in response to the manipulated variable. Control An item that is used to insure that change has taken place. Placebo Theory Evidence from numerous investigations build up Biology Is the science that employs the scientific method to study living things Homeostasis Living things maintain a stable internal environment. Body chemistry, water balance, etc. Sexual reproduction Cells from two different parents unite to form the first cell of the new organism. A way to give genetic variety to the offspring. Asexual reproduction Is when a single parent produces offspring that are identical to itself. Metabolism The combination of chemical reactions through which an organism builds up or breaks down materials. Stimulus A signal to which an organism responds
Metric system Is a decimal system of measurement whose units are based on certain physical standards and are scaled on multiples of 10. Microscope Are devices that produce magnified images of structures that are too small to see with the unaided eye. Simple Microscope is a magnifying glass. Compound Microscope-a tube with two lenses, used to magnify small objects. Compound light microscope Allows light to pass through the specimen and use two lenses to form an image. Electronic Microscope Use beams of electrons, rather than light, to produce images of specimen. TEM SEM Cell culture Cells that are able to reproduce, so there will be a lot of samples. Cell fractionation To separate the different cell parts. Centrifugation, Atom Basic unit of matter Composed of Proton, Neutron and electrons Nucleus Strong forces bind protons and neutrons together in an atom The control center of the cell, composed of chromatin (DNA and Proteins) Electron Is a negatively charged particle with 1/1840 the mass of a proton Most prominent property is involved with bonding
Element Is a pure substance that consists entirely of one type of atom Isotope Atoms of the same element that differ in the number of neutrons they contain. The Isotopes have different atomic mass due to different number of neutrons. Thus they have slightly different properties Compound Is a substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements in definite proportions. Ionic bond Is formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another Ion Positively (lost electrons) and negatively (gained electrons)chargedatoms Cation-positively charged particles Anion-negatively charge particles Covalent bond Forms when electrons are shared between atoms. molecule Is the smallest unit of most compounds Van derwaalsforce Chemistscall intermolecular forces of attractions. Cohesion Is an attraction between molecules of the same substance
adhesion Is an attraction between molecules of different substances. mixture Is a material composed of two or more elements or compounds that are physically mixed together (but not chemically combined). Mixture can be separated using ordinary methods. solution Are evenly distributed throughout the solution. solute The substance that is dissolved solvent The substance in which the solute dissolves suspension Mixtures of water and non dissolved material ph scale To indicate the concentration of H ions in solution The reciprocal log of the Hydroniumion concentration acid Is any compound that forms Hydronium(H) ions in solution. base Is a compound that produces hydroxide (OH-) ions in solution
buffer Are weak acids or bases that can react with strong acids or bases to prevent sharp, sudden changes. Are smaller units monomer polymer Monomers are joined togather Lipid Are made mostly from carbon and hydrogen atoms. Nucleic acid Are macromolecules containing hydrogen oxygen nitrogen carbon and phosphorus. Nucleotide consist of 3 parts a 5 carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base Ribonucleic acid RnA contains the sugar ribose Deoxyribonucleic acid DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose Protein Are macromolecules that contain nitrogen as well as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Amino acid Proteins are polymers of molecules (which are called amino acid) Chemical reaction Is a process that changes or transforms one set of chemicals into another. Reactant The elements or compounds that enter into a chemical reaction. Product Elements or compounds produced by a chemical reaction. Activation energy Energy that is needed to get a reaction started. catalyst Is a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction. enzyme Are proteins that act as biological catalysts. Substrate The reactants of enzyme catalyzed reactions. Cell Were the basic units of life
Cell theory A fundamental concept of biology Nucleus Is a large membrane enclosed structure that contains the cells genetic material in the form of DNA. eukaryote Are cells that contain nuclei prokaryote Are cells that do not contain nuclei Organelle Are organs that can be all different sizes and types Cytoplasm Is the portion of the cell outside the nucleus Nuclear envelope Composed of two membranes Chromatin The granular material you can see in the nucleus Chromosome When a cell divides the chromatin condenses to form chromosome
Nucleolus Is where the assembly of ribosome's begins Ribosome Are small particles of RNA and protein found throughout the cytoplasm. Endoplasmic reticulum Is the site where lipid components of the cell membrane are assembled, along with proteins and other materials that are exported from the cell. Golgi apparatus Is to modify sort and package proteins storage in the cell or secretion outside the cell Lysosome Are small organelles filled with enzymes Vacuole It stores materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates. Mitochondrion Are organelles that convert the chemical energy stored in food into compounds that are more convenient for the cell to use. Chloroplast Are organelles that capture the energy from sunlight and convert it into chemical energy. Cytoskeleton Is a network of protein filaments that helps the cell to maintain its shape.
Centriole located near the nucleuses from and help to organize cell division. Cell membrane Regulates what enters and leaves the cell and also provides protection and support Cell wall A strong supporting layer around the membrane. Lipid bilayer Is a doubled layer sheet Concentration is the mass of solute in a given volume of solution or mass/volume. Diffusion Is where the particles are less concentrated Equilibrium A concentration of the solute is the same throughout a system. osmosis is the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane. same strength Isotonic
Hypertonic Hypotonic Facilitated diffusion Above strength Below strength Diffusion of molecules, such as glucose Active transport Cells move materials in the opposite direction against concentration differences. Endocytosis Is the process of taking material into the cell by means of infoldings or pockets of the cell membrane. Phagocytosis Extensions of cytoplasm surround a particle and package it within a food vacuole Pinocytosis Process by which a cell takes in liquid from the surrounding environment Exocytosis Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material Cell Specialization The process in which cells develop in different ways to perform different tasks
Tissue Group of similar cells that perform a particular function Organ Group of tissues that work together to perform closely related functions. Organ system Group of organs that work together to perform a specific function Cell division Process by which a cell divides into two new daughter cells Cytokinesis Division of the cytoplasm during cell division chromatid One of 2 identical sister parts of a duplicated chromosome. Centromere Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached. Cell cycle Series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide Centriole Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached
Spindle Fanlike microtubule structure that helps separate the chromosomes during mitosis. Cyclin One of a family of closely related proteins that regulate the cell cycle in eukaryotic cells. Cancer Disorder in when some of the body own cells lose the ability to control growth Genetics Scientific study of heredity Fertilization Process in sexual reproduction in which male and female reproductive cells join to form a new cell True-breeding Term used to describe organisms that produce offspring identical to themselves if allowed to self pollinate Trait Specific characteristic that varies from on individual to another Hybrid Off spring of crosses between parents with different traits. gene Sequence of DNA that codes for a protein and thus determines a trait.
Allele One of a number of different forms of a gene Segregation Separation of alleles during gamete formation Gamete Specialized cell involved in sexual reproduction Probability Likely hood something's going to happen Punnett square Diagram showing the gene combination that might result from a genetic cross Homozygous Terms used to refer to an organism that has two identical alleles for a particular trait Heterozygous Term used to refer to an organism that has two different alleles for the same trait. Phenotype Physical characteristics of an organ Genotype Genetic makeup of an organism
Independent assortment independent segregation of genes during the formation of gametes. Incomplete dominance Situation in which one allelle is not complete dominant over another Codominance Situation in which both alleles of a gene contribute to the phenotype of the organism Multiple alleles 3 or more alleles of the same gene Polygenic traits Trait controlled by by 2 or more genes Homologous Term used to refer to chromosomes that each have a corresponding chromosome from the opposite sex parent. Diploid Term used to refer to a cell that contains both sets of homologous chromosomes Haploid Term used to refer to a cell that contains only a single set of chromosomes and therefore only a single set of genes. Meiosis Process by which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell.
Tetrad Structure containing 4 chromatids that forms during meiosis Crossing-over Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis Gene map Diagram showing the relative locations of each known gene on a particular chromosome Karyotype Photograph of chromosome grouped in order in pairs Sex chromosome One of 2 chromosomes that determine an individual s sex Autosome Chromosome that is not a sex chromosome Pedigree Chart that shows the relationships within a family Sex-linked gene Gene located on the x or y chromosome Non disjunction Error in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes fail to separate.
DNA fingerprinting Analysis of sections of DNA that have little or no known function Taxonomy Discipline of classifying organisms and assigning each organism a universally accepted name. Binomial nomenclature Classification system in which each species is assigned a two part scientific name Really smart person Genus Taxon A species or genus, a group in the classification system Family Group of genera that share many characteristics. Within an order the next smaller or more specific grouping of organisms. Order Group of similar families Class Group of similar orders Phylum Group of closely related classes Division is substituted for Phylum in the plant kingdom
Kingdom A large taxonomic group, consisting of closely related phyla Phylogeny The study of evolutionary relationships among organisms Evolutionary classification Method of grouping organisms together according to their evolutionary history Derived character Characteristic that appears in recent parts of a lineage Cladogram Diagram that shows the evolutionary relationships among a group of organisms Molecular clock Model that uses DNA comparisons to estimate the length of time that two species have been evolving independently Domain Most inclusive taxonomic category; larger than a kingdom Bacteria Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have cell walls containing peptidoglycan Eubacteria Kingdom of unicellular prokaryotes whose cell walls are made up of peptidoglycan
Archaea Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have a cell walls that do not contain peptidoglycan Archaebacteria Kingdom of unicellular prokaryotes whose cell walls that do not contain peptidoglycans Eukarya Domain of all organisms whose cells have nuclei including protests plants fungi Protista Kingdom composed of eukaryotes that are not classified as plants, animals, or fungi Fungi Kingdom composed of heterotrophs; many obtain energy and nutrients from dead organic matter Plantae Kingdom of multicellular photosynthetic autotrophs that have cell walls containing cellulose Animalia Kingdom of multicellular eukaryotic heterotrophs whose cells do not have cell walls