CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: PROLOGUE The Local Environment... 1 Observation, Inference, Classification Properties of the Environment... 3 Measurement, Percent Deviation From Accepted Value Density... 6 Density of Matter, Density and Phases of Matter, Effect of Temperature and Pressure on the Density of Gases The Nature of Change... 10 Characteristics of Change, Frames of Reference, Rate of Change, Cyclic Change, Predicting Change, Energy and Change Environmental Equilibrium... 13 Equilibrium, Environmental Pollution CHAPTER 2: MEASURING EARTH Models... 24 Laboratory Models, Mental Models Size of Earth... 25 Earth Dimensions, Earthʼs Structure Determining Positions on Earth... 27 Coordinate Systems, Latitude, Measuring Latitude, Longitude, Measuring Longitude, Earth Rotation and Time Mapping Fields... 32 Isolines, Gradient Using Topographic Maps... 32 Contour Maps, Map Features CHAPTER 3: MINERALS AND ROCKS Minerals... 47 Mineral Characteristics, Distinguishing Characteristics of Minerals, The Formation of Minerals Rocks... 54 Relation to Minerals, Types of Rocks Igneous Rocks... 54 Formation of Igneous Rocks, Features of Igneous Rocks, Structure of Igneous Rocks Sedimentary Rocks... 59 Compression and Cementation, Chemical Processes, Biological Processes, Features of Sedimentary Rocks, Inferred Characteristics of Rock Types Metamorphic Rocks... 64 Formation of Metamorphic Rocks, Parent Material, Types of Metamorphism The Rock Cycle... 67 Transition Zones, Rock Composition Mineral Conservation... 70
CHAPTER 4: THE DYNAMIC CRUST Earthʼs Crust and Interior... 79 Earthquake and Volcanic Distribution, Solid and Liquid Zones, Interior Composition Earthquakes... 83 Earthquake Waves, Seismograms, Locating the Epicenter of an Earthquake, Velocity of Earthquake Waves, Earthquake Strength, Earthquake Damage, Volcanic Damage Evidence for Crustal Movement... 91 Major Crustal Changes, Zones of Crustal Activity, Theories of Crustal Change, Plate Movements, Fact or Theory?, Plate Boundaries, Geosynclines, Crustal Thickness, Crustal Composition, Magnetic Poles, Ocean-Floor Spreading, Ages of Igneous Rocks, Reversal of Magnetic Polarity, Minor Crustal Changes CHAPTER 5: SECTION 1 - SURFACE PROCESSES AND LANDSCAPES WATER AND THE GROUND The Water Cycle... 124 Ground Water... 125 Infiltration, Permeability, Porosity, Water Retained by Particles, Capillarity Surface Water... 128 Runoff Weathering... 130 Weathering Process, Weathering Types, Climate and Weathering, Weathering Rates Soils... 133 Soil Formation, Soil Solution Erosion... 137 Evidence of Erosion, Types of Sediment, Factors Affecting Transportation, Gravity, Running Water and Erosion, Wind and Ice Erosion, Effects of Erosional Agents, Effects of Humans on Erosion Deposition... 143 Factors Affecting Deposition An Erosional-Depositional System... 148 Energy Relationships in Erosional-Depositional Systems, Dominant Processes in an Erosional-Depositional System, Life History of a Stream, Erosional-Depositional Interfaces, Dynamic Equilibrium of a Stream, Erosional Depositional Changes CHAPTER 5: SECTION 2 - SURFACE PROCESSES AND LANDSCAPES OCEANS - GLACIERS - ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES Ocean Currents and Wave Action... 169 Introduction to Oceans... 169 Ocean Floor Activity Ocean Currents... 175 Erosion and Deposition By Wave Action... 180 Waves, Beaches, Longshore Drift, Coast and Coastal Features
Glacial Erosion and Deposition... 189 What are Glaciers?... 189 Glacial Erosion... 192 Glacial Deposition... 194 The Glacial History of New York State... 199 Glaciers, Landscape, and the Economy of New York State... 202 Wind Action... 208 Erosional Features... 208 Sand Dunes... 209 Living in Balance With Our Natural Environment... 504 Mass Movement... 212 Landscape Development and Environmental Change... 214 Landscape Characteristics... 214 Landscape Observations and Measurements, Relationship of Characteristics Landscape Development... 219 Uplifting and Leveling Forces, Climate, Bedrock, Time, Dynamic Equilibrium, Human Activities CHAPTER 6: EARTHʼS HISTORY Geologic Events... 250 Sequence of Geologic Events, Evidence of Events Correlation Techniques... 257 Continuity of Rock and Correlation, Similarity of Rock and Correlation, Fossil Evidence and Correlation, Volcanic Time Markers and Correlation, Anomalies to Correlation Determining Geologic Ages... 262 Fossil Evidence, Scale of Geologic Time, Erosional Record, Geologic History of an Area Radioactive Decay... 266 Decay Rates, Half-life, Decay Products Ratios The History and Evolution of Earthʼs Atmosphere... 271 The Fossil Record... 272 Variety of Life Forms, Evolutionary Development CHAPTER 7: STUDY OF THE ATMOSPHERE... Atmospheric Energy... 291 Electromagnetic Energy... 291 Properties of Electromagnetic Energy, Solar Energy, Matter and Electromagnetic Energy, Earth Energy Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere... 296 Convection, Conduction, Radiation
Energy Transformation... 301 Conservation of Energy, Kinetic and Potential Energy, Friction and Energy Transformation, Wavelength Reradiation Heat and Temperature... 302 Temperature, Temperature Scales, Heat, Calories, Specific Heat, Heat Gain or Loss Heat Energy and Phase Changes... 305 Latent Heat, Latent Heat Loss or Gain During Phase Changes, Water and Latent Heat Atmospheric Relationships... 310 Temperature Variations, Moisture Variations, Relative Humidity, Determining Dewpoint Temperature, Determining Dewpoint Temperature With Chart, Determining Relative Humidity With Chart, Pressure Variations, Moisture and Energy Input, Vapor Pressure, Factors Affecting the Rate of Evaporation, Saturation Vapor Pressure, Other Energy Inputs, Air Movement, Local Breezes, Planetary Convection Cells, Planetary Winds, Jet Streams, Atmospheric Transparency, Other Variables Clouds and Precipitation... 329 Precipitation Moisture and Energy Transfer... 334 Adiabatic Changes in Temperature Forecasting the Weather... 340 Weather Maps and Forecasting... 342 Station Model, Air-mass Characteristics, Source Regions, Air-mass Tracks, Cyclones and Anticyclones, Fronts, Mid-latitude Cyclones Hurricanes and Tornadoes... 356 Hurricane Safety, Key Hurricane Alerts, Hurricane Safety Procedures, Tornado Safety CHAPTER 8: CLIMATES... Water Cycle and Climate... 379 Insolation and Earthʼs Surface... 381 Insolation, Intensity of Insolation Factors Affecting Insolation... 383 Angle of Insolation, Angle of Insolation and Temperature, Time of Day and Intensity of Insolation, Earthʼs Shape and Intensity of Insolation, Seasons and Intensity of Insolation, Latitude and Intensity of Insolation, Duration of Insolation, Duration of Insolation and Temperature, Temperature Changes and Radiative Balance, Maximum and Minimum Temperatures Radiation and the Atmosphere... 397 Layers of the Atmosphere, The Atmosphere and Insolation, Land and Water Surfaces Terrestrial Radiation... 399 The Greenhouse Effect, Radiative Balance Versus Time The Water Budget... 403 Climate and the Water Budget, Stream Discharge and the Water Budget
Factors Affecting Climate Patterns... 406 Latitude and Climate, Elevation and Climate, Large Bodies of Water and Climate, Ocean Currents and Climate, Mountain Barriers and Climate, Wind Belts and Climate, Storm Tracks Seasonal Wind Patterns... 408 Monsoons, El Niño and La Niña CHAPTER 9: EARTH IN SPACE AND BEYOND Astronomy... 424 Earth in the Universe... 424 Sunspots The Solar System... 428 Formation of Solar System, Terrestrial and Jovian Planets Earth and the Nearby Planets... 430 Temperature, Water, Atmosphere Modern Telescopes... 431 The Future Space Objects... 434 Asteroids, Comets, Meteoroids, Meteors, and Meteorites, Impact Events, Impact Craters Origin and Fate of the Universe... 439 Doppler Effect Deep Space Phenomena... 441 Comparing Temperature, Color and Luminosity Celestial Observations... 445 Celestial Sphere, Star Paths Constellations... 447 Star Shifts, Planetary Motions Models to Explain Celestial Motions... 449 Geocentric Model, Heliocentric Model Orbital Forces... 452 Modern Celestial Model, Orbital Geometry, Gravitation Earthʼs Rotation... 459 Evidence of Earthʼs Rotation, Apparent Diameter, Motions of the Sun Time and Earth Motions... 473 Apparent Solar Day, Mean Solar Day Moon and its Effects... 475 Moon Motions, Tides, Phases of the Moon, Eclipses
CHAPTER 10: ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS Interdependence of Earthʼs Living and Non-Living Systems... 495 Pollution, Land Pollution Pollution of Earthʼs Water... 497 Sources of Water Pollutants, Types of Pollutants, Aerobic and Anaerobic Bacteria, Eutrophication, Concentration of Pollutants, Long-range Effects Air Pollution... 499 Health Problems, Pollution on a Global Scale, Acid Rain, Ozone Depletion, Global Warming, Population Growth Living in Balance With Our Natural Environment... 504 Technology, Conservation, The Future EARTH SCIENCE REFERENCE TABLES... 513 GLOSSARY... 529 INDEX... 553 REGENTS EXAMINATIONS