Sixth Edition Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics International Student Version BRUCE R. MUNSON DONALD F. YOUNG Department of Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics THEODORE H. OKIISHI Department of Mechanical Engineering Iowa State University Ames, Iowa, USA WADE W. HUEBSCH Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering West Virginia University Morgantown, West Virginia, USA John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
с ontents i INTRODUCTION 1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids 1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units 1.2.1 Systems of Units 1.3 Analysis of Fluid Behavior 1.4 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight 1.4.1 Density 1.4.2 Specific Weight 1.4.3 Specific Gravity 1.5 Ideal Gas Law 1.6 Viscosity 1.7 Compressibility of Fluids 1.7.1 Bulk Modulus 1.7.2 Compression and Expansion of Gases 1.7.3 Speed of Sound 1.8 Vapor Pressure 1.9 Surface Tension 1. A Brief Look Back in History 1.11 Review 2 FLUID STATICS 2.1 Pressure at a Point 2.2 Basic for Pressure Field 2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest 2.3.1 Incompressible Fluid 2.3.2 Compressible Fluid 2.4 Standard Atmosphere 2.5 Measurement of Pressure 2.6 Manometry 2.6.1 Piezometer Tube 2.6.2 U-Tube Manometer 2.6.3 Inclined-Tube Manometer 2.7 Mechanical and Electronic Pressure Measuring Devices 1 3 4 7 11 11 11 13 20 20 20 22 23 24 27 29 30 31 31 38 38 38 40 41 42 45 47 48 50 50 51 54 55 2.8 2.9 2. 2.11 2.12 2.13 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface Pressure Prism Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability 2.11.1 Archimedes'Principle 2.11.2 Stability Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion 2.12.1 Linear Motion 2.12.2 Rigid-Body Rotation Review ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS THE BERNOULLI EQUATION 3.1 Newton's Second Law 3.2 F = ma along a Streamline 3.3 F = ma Normal to a Streamline 3.4 Physical Interpretation 3.5 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure 3.6 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli 3.6.1 Free Jets 3.6.2 Confined Flows 3.7 3.8 3.6.3 Flowrate Measurement The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli 3.8.1 Compressibility Effects 3.8.2 Unsteady Effects 3.8.3 Rotational Effects 3.8.4 Other Restrictions 3.9 Review 57 63 66 68 68 7! 72 73 75 77 78 78 78 93 93 94 96 0 2 5 1 1 112 118 123 126 126 128 130 131 131 133 133 133 XVII
XVÜi Contents FLUID KINEMATICS 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 ing Objectives The Velocity Field 4.1.1 Eulerian and Lagrangian Flow Descriptions 4.1.2 One-, Two-, and Three - Dimensional Flows 4.1.3 Steady and Unsteady Flows 4.1.4 Streamlines, Streaklines, and Pathlines The Acceleration Field 4.2.1 The Material Derivative 4.2.2 Unsteady Effects 4.2.3 Convective Effects 4.2.4 Streamline Coordinates Control Volume and System Representations The Reynolds Transport Theorem 4.4.1 Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem 4.4.2 Physical Interpretation 4.4.3 Relationship to Material Derivative 4.4.4 Steady Effects 4.4.5 Unsteady Effects 4.4.6 Moving Control Volumes 4.4.7 Selection of a Control Volume Review 147 147 147 150 151 152 152 156 156 159 159 163 165 166 168 173 173 174 174 176 177 178 179 179 179 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.2.4 Application of the Moment-of- First Law of Thermodynamics The Energy 5.3.1 Derivation of the Energy 5.3.2 Application of the Energy 5.3.3 Comparison of the Energy with the Bernoulli 5.3.4 Application of the Energy to Nonuniform Flows 5.3.5 Combination of the Energy and the Moment-of- Second Law of Thermodynamics Irreversible Flow 5.4. Semi-infinitesimal Control Volume Statement of the 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 Energy Semi-infinitesimal Control Volume Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics Combination of the s of the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics Application of the Loss Form of the Energy Review 216 223 223 225 229 235 238 239 239 240 241 242 244 245 245 245 FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS 5.1 Conservation of Mass The Continuity 5.1.1 Derivation of the Continuity 5.1.2 Fixed, Nondeforming Control Volume 5.1.3 Moving, Nondeforming Control Volume 5.1.4 Deforming Control Volume 5.2 Newton's Second Law The Linear Momentum and Moment-of- s 5.2.1 Derivation of the Linear 5.2.2 Application of the Linear 5.2.3 Derivation of the Moment-of- 187 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW 263 1 о / 263 188 6.1 Fluid Element Kinematics 264 6.1.1 Velocity and Acceleration 188 Fields Revisited 265 6.1.2 Linear Motion and Deformation 265 190 6.1.3 Angular Motion and Deformation 266 6.2 Conservation of Mass 269 196 6.2.1 Differential Form of 198 Continuity 269 6.2.2 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates 272 6.2.3 The Stream Function 272 200 6.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum 275 6.3.1 Description of Forces Acting 200 on the Differential Element 276 6.3.2 s of Motion 278 201 6.4 Inviscid Flow 279 6.4.1 Euler's s of Motion 279 215 6.4.2 The Bernoulli 279
Contents XIX 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6. 6.1 6.4.3 Irrotational Flow 6.4.4 The Bernoulli for Irrotational Flow 6.4.5 The Velocity Potential Some Basic, Plane Potential Flows 6.5.1 Uniform Flow 6.5.2 Source and Sink 6.5.3 Vortex 6.5.4 Doublet Superposition of Basic, Plane Potential Flows 6.6.1 Source in a Uniform Stream Half-Body 6.6.2 Rankine Ovals 6.6.3 Flow around a Circular Cylinder Other Aspects of Potential Flow Analysis Viscous Flow 6.8.1 Stress-Deformation Relationships 6.8.2 The Naiver-Stokes s Some Simple Solutions for Viscous, Incompressible Fluids 6.9.1 Steady, Laminar Flow between Fixed Parallel Plates 6.9.2 Couette Flow 6.9.3 Steady, Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes 6.9.4 Steady, Axial, Laminar Flow in an Annulus Other Aspects of Differential Analysis 6..1 Numerical Methods Review 7 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS, SIMILITUDE, AND MODELING 7.1 Dimensional Analysis 7.2 Buckingham Pi Theorem 7.3 Determination of Pi Terms 7.4 Some Additional Comments About Dimensional Analysis 7.4.1 Selection of Variables 7.4.2 Determination of Reference Dimensions 7.4.3 Uniqueness of Pi Terms 7.5 Determination of Pi Terms by Inspection 7.6 Common Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics 7.7 Correlation of Experimental Data 7.7.1 with One Pi Term 281 283 283 286 287 288 290 293 295 295 298 300 305 306 306 307 308 309 311 313 316 318 318 319 320 320 321 332 332 333 335 336 341 341 342 344 345 346 350 351 7.9 7. 7.11 7.7.2 with Two or More Pi Terms Modeling and Similitude 7.8.1 Theory of Models 7.8.2 Model Scales 7.8.3 Practical Aspects of Using Models Some Typical Model Studies 7.9.1 Flow through Closed Conduits 7.9.2 Flow around Immersed Bodies 7.9.3 Flow with a Free Surface Similitude Based on Governing Differential s Review 8 VISCOUS FLOW IN PIPES 8.1 Genera] Characteristics of Pipe Flow 8.1.1 Laminar or Turbulent Flow 8.1.2 Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow 8.1.3 Pressure and Shear Stress 8.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow 8.2.1 From F = ma Applied to a Fluid Element 8.2.2 From the Navier-Stokes s 8.2.3 From Dimensional Analysis 8.2.4 Energy Considerations 8.3 Fully Developed Turbulent Flow 8.3.1 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow 8.3.2 Turbulent Shear Stress 8.3.3 Turbulent Velocity Profile 8.3.4 Turbulence Modeling 8.3.5 Chaos and Turbulence 8.4 Dimensional Analysis of Pipe Flow 8.4.1 Major Losses 8.4.2 Minor Losses 8.4.3 Noncircular Conduits 8.5 Pipe Flow Examples 8.5.1 Single Pipes 8.5.2 Multiple Pipe Systems 8.6 Pipe Flowrate Measurement 8.6.1 Pipe Flowrate Meters 8.6.2 Volume Flow Meters 8.7 Review 352 354 354 358 358 360 360 363 367 370 373 374 374 374 383 383 384 385 388 389 390 390 394 396 397 399 399 401 405 409 409 409 4 415 425 428 428 437 441 441 446 447 449 450 450
XX Contents FLOW OVER IMMERSED BODIES 9.1 General External Flow Characteristics 9.1.1 Lift and Drag Concepts 9.1.2 Characteristics of Flow Past an Object 9.2 Boundary Layer Characteristics 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 9.2.5 9.2.6 9.2.7 Drag 9.3.1 9.3.2 9.3.3 Lift 9.4.1 9.4.2 Boundary Layer Structure and Lhickness on a Flat Plate Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution Momentum Integral Boundary Layer for a Flat Plate Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow Effects of Pressure Gradient Momentum-Integral Boundary Layer with Nonzero Pressure Gradient Friction Drag Pressure Drag Drag Coefficient Data and Examples Surface Pressure Distribution Circulation Review OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW.1 General Characteristics of Open- Channel Flow.2 Surface Waves.2.1 Wave Speed.2.2 Froude Number Effects.3 Energy Considerations.3.1 Specific Energy.3.2 Channel Depth Variations.4 Uniform Depth Channel Flow.4.1 Uniform Flow Approximations.4.2 The Chezy and Manning s.4.3 Uniform Depth Examples.5 Gradually Varied Flow.5.1 Classification of Surface Shapes.5.2 Examples of Gradually Varied Flows 461 461 462 463 466 470 470 474 478 483 485 488 492 493 494 495 497 509 509 518 522 523 524 524 534 534 535 536 536 539 541 542 545 546 546 547 550 554 000 000.6 Rapidly Varied Flow.6.1 The Hydraulic Jump.6.2 Sharp-Crested Weirs.6.3 Broad-Crested Weirs.6.4 Underflow Gates.7 Review / / COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 11.1 Ideal Gas Relationships 11.2 Mach Number and Speed of Sound 11.3 Categories of Compressible Flow 11.4 Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas 11.4.1 Effect of Variations in Flow Cross-Sectional Area 11.4.2 Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 11.4.3 Constant-Area Duct Flow 11.5 Nonisentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas 11.5.1.5.2 Adiabatic Constant-Area Duct Flow with Friction (Fanno Flow) Frictionless Constant-Area Duct Flow with Heat Transfer (Rayleigh Flow) 11.5.3 Normal Shock Waves 11.6 Analogy between Compressible and Open-Channel Flows 11.7 Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 11.8 Review 12 TURBOMACHINES 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Basic Energy Considerations 12.3 Basic Angular Momentum Considerations 12.4 The Centrifugal Pump 12.4.1 Theoretical Considerations 12.4.2 Pump Performance Characteristics 12.4.3 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 12.4.4 System Characteristics and Pump Selection 12.5 Dimensionless Parameters and Similarity Laws 12.5.1 Special Pump Scaling Laws 12.5.2 Specific Speed 12.5.3 Suction Specific Speed 555 556 561 564 566 568 569 569 570 579 579 580 585 588 592 593 595 609 609 609 620 626 633 635 636 639 640 640 645 645 646 647 651 653 654 658 660 662 666 668 669 670
Contents XXI 12.6 Axial-Flow and Mixed-Flow Pumps 12.7 Fans 12.8 Turbines 12.8.1 Impulse Turbines 12.8.2 Reaction Turbines 12.9 Compressible Flow Turbomachines 12.9.1 Compressors 12.9.2 Compressible Flow Turbines 12. Review A COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS AND FLOWLAB В PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS С PROPERTIES OF THE U.S. STANDARD ATMOSPHERE D COMPRESSIBLE FLOW DATA FOR AN IDEAL CAS ONLINE APPENDIX LIST COMPREHENSIVE TABLE OF CONVERSION FACTORS 671 673 673 674 682 685 686 689 691 693 693 693 701 714 717 718 723 F VIDEO LIBRARY С REVIEW PROBLEMS H LABORATORY PROBLEMS CFD DRIVEN CAVITY EXAMPLE J FLOWLAB TUTORIAL AND USER'S GUIDE К FLOWLAB PROBLEMS ANSWERS ANS-1 INDEX I-1 VIDEO INDEX VI-1