Indian Journal of Chemical Technology Vol. 16, January 2009, pp. 38-45 Rhodamine B adsorption by activated carbon: Kinetic and equilibrium studies M Hema & S Arivoli* Department of Chemistry, H H The Rajah s Government College, Pudukkottai 622 001, India Email: arivu3636@yahoo.com Received 23 November 2007; revised 10 October 2008 A carbonaceous adsorbent (TPC) prepared from Thespusia populinia bark by acid treatment was tested for its efficiency in removing Rhodamine B (RDB). The parameters studied include agitation time, initial dye concentration, carbon dose, ph and temperature. The adsorption followed first order reaction equation and the rate is mainly controlled by intra-particle diffusion. Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm models were applied to the equilibrium data. The adsorption capacity (Q m ) obtained from the Langmuir isotherm plots were 60.836, 64.239, 68.695 and 77.178 mg/g respectively at an initial ph of 7.0 at 30, 40, 50 and 60 o C. The temperature variation study showed that the RDB adsorption is endothermic and spontaneous with increased randomness at the solid solution interface. Significant effect on adsorption was observed on varying the ph of the RDB solutions. Almost 79% removal of RDB was observed at 60 o C. The Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms obtained, positive H o value, ph dependent results and desorption of dye in mineral acid suggest that the adsorption of RDB on TPC involves physisorption mechanism. Keywords: Thespusia populinia bark carbon (TPC), Rhodamine B (RDB), Adsorption isotherm, Equilibrium, Kinetic and Thermodynamic parameters, Intraparticle diffusion Colour is one of the characteristics of an effluent. Most of the dyes are stable to biological degradation. Coloured waters are often objectionable on aesthetic grounds for drinking and other agricultural purposes. Wastewaters from dyeing industries are released into nearby land or rivers without any treatment because the conventional treatment methods are not cost effective in the Indian context. Adsorption is one of the most effective methods and activated carbon is the preferred adsorbent widely employed to treat wastewater containing different classes of dyes, recognizing the economic drawback of commercial activated carbon 1,2. Many investigators have studied the feasibility of using inexpensive alternative materials like pearl millet husk, date pits, saw and buffing dust of leather industry, coir pith, crude oil residue, tropical grass, olive stone, almond shells, pine bark, wool waste, wheat husk, de-oiled soya, rice husk, jack fruit peel, coconut shell etc., as carbonaceous precursors for the removal of dyes from water and wastewater 1-8. The present study is undertaken to evaluate the efficiency of a carbon adsorbent prepared from acid activated Thespusia populinia bark carbon for removal of dye in aqueous solution. In order to design adsorption treatment systems, knowledge of kinetic and mass transfer processes is essential. In this paper, the applicability of kinetic and mass-transfer models for the adsorption of Rhodamine B (RDB) onto acid activated carbon has also been reported. Experimental Procedure Preparation of adsorbent Dried Thespusia populinia bark was carbonized with concentrated sulphuric acid in the weight ratio of 1:1 (w/v). Heating for 12 h in a furnace at 500 C completed the carbonization and activation. The resulting carbon was washed with distilled water until a constant ph of the slurry was reached. Then the carbon was dried for 4 h at 125 C in a hot air oven. The dried material was ground well to a fine powder and sieved to 0.075 mm. Adsorption experiments The adsorption experiments were carried out in a batch process at 30, 40, 50 and 60 o C. A known weight of adsorbent was added to 50 ml of dye solutions with an initial concentration of 20-100 mg/l. The contents were shaken thoroughly using a mechanical shaker rotating at 125 rpm. The solution was then filtered at preset time intervals and the residual dye concentration was measured.
HEMA & ARIVOLI: RHODAMINE B ADSORPTION BY ACTIVATED CARBON 39 Effect of adsorbent dosage Various doses of the adsorbents were mixed with dye solutions and the mixture was agitated in a mechanical shaker. The adsorption capacities for different doses were determined at definite time intervals by keeping all other factors constant. Effect of initial concentration of dye In order to determine the rate of adsorption, experiments were conducted with different initial concentrations of dyes ranging from 20-100 mg/l. All other factors were kept constant. Effect of contact time The effect of period of contact on the removal of the dye on adsorbent in a single cycle was determined by keeping particle size, initial concentration, dosage, ph and concentration of other ions constant. Effect of ph Adsorption experiments were carried out at ph 3-10. The acidic and alkaline ph of the media was maintained by adding the required amounts of dilute HCl and NaOH. All other factors were kept constant while carrying out the experiments. The ph of the samples was determined using a portable ph meter (Systronics make). The ph meter was calibrated with 4.0 and 9.2 buffers. Effect of chloride ions The experiments were done in the presence of varying chloride environments using sodium chloride solutions of different concentrations. While doing the experiments, the absence of other anions was ensured. Effect of temperature The adsorption experiments were performed at four different temperatures viz., 30, 40, 50 and 60 o C in a thermostat attached with a shaker (Remi make). The constancy of the temperature was maintained with an accuracy of ± 0.5ºC. Zero point charge The ph at the potential of zero charge of the carbon (ph zpc ) was measured using the ph drift method 9. The ph of the solution was adjusted by using 0.01 M NaOH or HCl. Nitrogen was bubbled through the solution at 25 o C to remove the dissolved carbon dioxide. 50 mg of the activated carbon was added to 50 ml of the solution. After equlibration, the final ph was recorded. The graphs of final ph versus initial ph were used to determine the zero point charge of the activated carbon. Titration studies Earlier studies by Boehm 9 revealed that only strongly acidic carboxylic acid groups are neutralized by sodium bicarbonate, whereas those neutralized by sodium carbonate are thought to be lactones, lactol and carboxyl group. The weakly acidic phenolic group reacts only with NaOH. Therefore, by selective neutralization using bases of different strength, the surface acidic functional group in carbon can be characterized both quantitatively and qualitatively. Neutralization with HCl characterizes the amount of surface basic groups that are, for example, pyrones and chromenes. The basic properties are described to surface basic groups and the pi electron system of carbon basal planes. The results from titration studies indicate that carbon used may possess acidic oxygen functional group on its surface and it is well supported by the zero point charge value. Desorption studies Desorption studies help to elucidate the nature of adsorption and recycling of the spent adsorbent and the dye. The effectiveness of various reagents used for desorption were studied. Results and Discussion Characteristics of the adsorbent The physico-chemical properties of the prepared activated carbon were determined by standard procedures, ph drift method and titration studies (Table 1). Properties Table 1 Characteristics of the adsorbent Thespusia populinia bark carbon Particle size (mm) 0.075 Density (g/cc) 0.5476 Moisture content (%) 1.75 Loss on ignition (%) 72 Acid insoluble matter (%) 2.25 Water soluble matter (%) 0.52 ph of aqueous solution 6.75 ph zpc 5.55 Surface groups (m equiv/g) (i) Carboxylic acid 0.278 (ii) Lactone, lactol 0.044 (iii) Phenolic 0.059 (iv) Basic (pyrones and chromenes) 0.033
40 INDIAN J. CHEM. TECHNOL., JANUARY 2009 Effect of contact time and initial dye concentration The results of variation of adsorption of RDB with contact time are shown in Fig. 1. The equilibrium data collected in Table 2 reveals that, percent adsorption decreased with increase in initial dye concentration, but the actual amount of dye adsorbed per unit mass of carbon increased with increase in dye concentration. It means that the adsorption is highly dependent on initial concentration of dye. It is because of the fact that at lower concentration, the ratio of the initial number of dye molecules to the available surface area is low subsequently the fractional adsorption becomes independent of initial concentration. However, at high concentration the available sites of adsorption becomes fewer and hence the percentage removal of dye dependents upon initial concentration 10,11. Equilibrium have established at 60 min for all concentrations. Figure 1 reveals that the curves are single, smooth, and continuous, leading to saturation, suggesting the possible monolayer coverage of the dyes on the carbon surface. Effect of carbon concentration The adsorption of the dyes on carbon was studied by varying the carbon concentration (10-250 mg/50ml) for 60 mg/l of dye concentration. The percent adsorption increased with increase in the carbon concentration (Fig. 2). This was attributed to increased carbon surface area and availability of more adsorption sites 11,12. Hence the remaining parts of the experiments were carried out with the adsorbent dose of 50 mg/50 ml. Fig. 1 Effect of contact time on the adsorption of RDB [RDB] = 60 mg/l; Adsorbent dose=50 mg/50 ml Fig. 2 Effect of adsorbent dose on the adsorption of RDB [RDB] = 60 mg/l; Contact time=90 min Table 2 Equilibrium parameters for the adsorption of dye onto activated carbon [RDB] 0 C e (mg/l) Q e (mg/g) Dye removed (%) Temperature ( o C) 30 o 40 o 50 o 60 o 30 o 40 o 50 o 60 o 30 o 40 o 50 o 60 o 20 4.2756 3.9253 3.7142 3.5232 15.7244 16.0747 16.2858 16.4768 78.62 80.37 81.42 82.38 40 10.9587 9.7752 8.7696 7.5697 29.0413 30.2248 31.2304 32.4132 72.60 75.56 78.07 81.03 60 21.4256 20.5743 19.2343 17.8674 38.5744 39.4257 40.7657 42.1326 64.29 65.70 67.94 70.22 80 37.1532 34.9782 33.4787 32.9773 42.8468 43.0218 46.5213 47.0227 53.35 52.52 58.15 58.77 100 50.9742 48.4572 45.7243 41.5125 49.0258 51.5428 54.2747 58.4875 49.02 51.54 54.27 58.48
HEMA & ARIVOLI: RHODAMINE B ADSORPTION BY ACTIVATED CARBON 41 Adsorption isotherm The experimental data were analyzed according to the linear form of the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms 12,13. The Langmuir isotherm is represented by the following equation C e /Q e = 1/Q m b + C e /Q m where C e is the equilibrium concentration (mg/l), Q e is the amount adsorbed at equilibrium (mg/g) and Q m and b are Langmuir constants related to adsorption efficiency and energy of adsorption, respectively. The linear plots of C e /Q e versus C e suggest the applicability of the Langmuir isotherms (Fig. 3). The values of Q m and b were determined from slope and intercepts of the plots and are presented in Table 3. From the results, it is clear that the value of adsorption efficiency Q m and adsorption energy b of the carbon increases on increasing the temperature. From the values it is concluded that the maximum adsorption corresponds to a saturated monolayer of adsorbate molecules on adsorbent surface with constant energy and no transmission of adsorbate in the plane of the adsorbent surface. The observed b value shows that the adsorbent prefers to bind acidic ions and that speciation predominates on sorbent characteristics, when ion exchange as the predominant mechanism takes place in the adsorption of RDB; it confirms the endothermic nature of the process involved in the system 14,15. To confirm the favourability of the adsorption process, the separation factor (R L ) was calculated (Table 4). The values were found to be between 0 and 1 which confirm that the ongoing adsorption process is favourable 12. The Freundlich equation was employed for the adsorption of Rhodamine B dye on the adsorbent. The Freundlich isotherm was represented by log Q e = log K f + 1/n log C e where Q e is the amount of Rhodamine B dye adsorbed (mg/g), C e is the equilibrium concentration of dye in solution (mg/l) and K f and n are constants incorporating the factors affecting the adsorption capacity and intensity of adsorption, respectively. Linear plots of log Q e versus log C e show that the adsorption of Rhodamine B dye obeys the Freundlich adsorption isotherm (Fig. 4). The values of K f and n given in the Table 5 show the increase in negative charges on the adsorbent surface that makes electrostatic force like Vanderwaal s into play between the carbon surface and dye ion, which increases the adsorption of RDB. The molecular Dye Table 3 Langmuir isotherm results Temp ( o C) Statistical parameters/constants r 2 Q m b RDB 30 0.9999 60.836 0.0813 40 0.9995 64.239 0.0819 50 0.9996 68.695 0.0805 60 0.9986 77.178 0.0730 Table 4 Dimensionless separation factor (R L ) [RDB] 0 (mg/l) Temperature ( o C) 30 40 50 60 20 0.381 0.380 0.384 0.406 40 0.235 0.234 0.238 0.255 60 0.170 0.169 0.172 0.185 80 0.133 0.132 0.135 0.146 100 0.109 0.108 0.111 0.120 Table 5 Freundlich isotherm results Fig. 3 Linear Langmuir isotherm for the adsorption of RDB Dye Temp ( o C) Statistical parameters/constants r 2 K f n RDB 30 0.9886 1.6014 2.1235 40 0.9927 1.6067 2.1097 50 0.9938 1.6305 2.0454 60 0.9959 1.6864 1.9134
42 INDIAN J. CHEM. TECHNOL., JANUARY 2009 weight, size and radii either limit or increase the possibility of the adsorption of the dye onto adsorbent. However, the values clearly show the dominance in adsorption capacity of adsorbent to adsorb RDB on the surface. The intensity of adsorption is an indication of the bond energies between dye and adsorbent, the values show that the possibility of chemisorption is rather less than physisorption 15,16. The values of n are greater than one indicating the adsorption is much more favourable 17. Effect of temperature The adsorption capacity of the carbon increased with increase in the temperature of the system from 30-60 C. Thermodynamic parameters such as change in free energy ( G ) (kj/mol), enthalpy ( H ) (kj/mol) and entropy ( S ) (J/K/mol) were determined using the following equations Fig. 4 Linear Freundlich isotherm for the adsorption of RDB K 0 = C solid /C liquid G = RT lnk O Iog K 0 = S /(2.303RT) H /(2.303RT) where K 0 is the equilibrium constant, C solid is the solid phase concentration at equilibrium (mg/l), C liquid is the liquid phase concentration at equilibrium (mg/l), T is the temperature in Kelvin and R is the gas constant. The H and S values obtained from the slope and intercept of Van t Hoff plots are presented in Table 6. The values of H are within the range of 1 to 93 KJ/mol indicating the physisorption. From the results it is clear that physisorption is much more favourable for the adsorption of RDB. The positive values of H show the endothermic nature of adsorption and it governs the possibility of physical adsorption 15-19. Since in case of physical adsorption, while increasing the temperature of the system, the extent of dye adsorption increases, this rules out the possibility of chemisorption 18. The low of H value suggest that the dye is physisorbed onto adsorbent TPC. The negative values of G (Table 6) show that the adsorption is highly favourable and spontaneous. The positive values of S (Table 6) show the increased disorder and randomness at the solid solution interface of RDB with TPC adsorbent that bring about some structural changes in the dye and the adsorbent. The enhancement of adsorption capacity of the activated carbon at higher temperatures was attributed to the enlargement of pore size and activation of the adsorbent surface 17-20. Kinetics of adsorption The kinetics of sorption describes the solute uptake rate, which in turn governs residence time or sorption reaction. It is one of the important characteristics in defining the efficiency or sorption. In the present Table 6 Equilibrium constant and thermodynamic parameters for the adsorption of Rhodamine B dye onto carbon [D] 0 K 0 G o H o S o Temperature ( o C) 30 o 40 o 50 o 60 o 30 o 40 o 50 o 60 o 20 3.37 4.09 4.38 4.67-3.28-3.66-3.96-4.27 16.50 32.66 40 2.65 3.09 3.56 4.28-2.46-2.93-3.41-4.02 13.10 51.23 60 1.80 1.91 2.11 2.35-1.48-1.69-2.01-2.37 7.52 29.57 80 1.15 1.20 1.38 1.42-0.35-0.47-0.88-0.98 6.50 22.54 100 0.96 1.06 1.18 1.40-0.09-0.16-0.45-0.94 5.91 19.65
HEMA & ARIVOLI: RHODAMINE B ADSORPTION BY ACTIVATED CARBON 43 study, the kinetics of the dye removal was carried out to understand the behaviour of the low cost carbon adsorbent. The adsorption of dye from an aqueous solution by the adsorbent follows reversible first order kinetics, when a single species is considered on a heterogeneous surface. The heterogeneous equilibrium between the dye solutions and the activated carbon is expressed as A k 1 k 2 where k 1 is the forward rate constant and k 2 is the backward rate constant. A represents dyes remaining in the aqueous solution and B represent dye adsorbed on the surface of activated carbon. The equilibrium constant (K 0 ) is the ratio of the adsorbate concentration in adsorbent and in aqueous solution (K 0 = k 1 /k 2 ). In order to study the kinetics of the adsorption process under consideration the following kinetic equation proposed by Natarajan and Khalaf 1,15 has been employed. B log C 0 /C t = (k ad /2.303)t where C 0 and C t are the concentration of the dye (mg/l) at time zero and at time t, respectively. The rate constants (k ad ) for the adsorption processes have been calculated from the slope of the linear plots of log C 0 /C t versus t for different concentrations and temperatures. The determination of rate constants as described in literature is given by k ad = k 1 +k 2 = k 1 +(k 1 /K 0 ) = k 1 [1+1/K 0 ] The overall rate constant k ad for the adsorption of dye at different temperatures are calculated from the slopes of the linear Natarajan-Khalaf plots. The rate constant values collected in Table 7 show that the rate constant (k ad ) increases with increase in temperature suggesting that the adsorption process is endothermic in nature. Further, k ad values decrease with increase in initial concentration of the dye. In cases of strict surface adsorption a variation of rate should be proportional to the first power of concentration. However, when pore diffusion limits the adsorption process, the relationship between initial dye concentration and rate of reaction will not be linear. Thus, in the present study pore diffusion limits the overall rate of dye adsorption. The over all rate of adsorption is separated into the rate of forward and reverse reactions using the above equation. The rate constants for the forward and reverse processes, also collected in Table 7, indicate that, at all initial concentrations and temperatures, the forward rate constant is much higher than the reverse rate constant suggesting that the rate of adsorption is clearly dominant 1,16,18. Intra-particle diffusion The most commonly used technique for identifying the mechanism involved in the sorption process is by fitting the experimental data in an intraparticle diffusion plot. Previous studies 15-18 by various researchers showed that the plot of Q versus t 0.5 represents multi linearity, which characterizes the two or more steps involved in the sorption process. According to Weber and Morris 21, an intra-particle diffusion coefficient K p is defined by the equation: K p = Q/t 0.5 + C Thus the K p (mg/g min 0.5 ) value can be obtained from the slope of the plot of Q t (mg/g) versus t 0.5 for Rhodamine B. From Fig. 5, it was noted that the sorption process tends to be followed by two phases. The two phases in the intraparticle diffusion plot Table 7 Rate constants for the adsorption of Rhodamine B dye (10 3 k ad, min -1 ) and the constants for forward (10 3 k 1, min 1 ) and reverse (10 3 k 2, min -1 ) process Temperature ( o C) [D] 0 k ad 30 40 50 60 30 o 40 o 50 o 60 o k 1 k 2 k 1 k 2 k 1 k 2 k 1 k 2 20 3.77 4.16 4.53 4.91 2.96 0.81 3.34 0.82 3.69 0.84 4.04 0.87 40 3.11 3.36 3.62 3.85 2.26 0.85 2.54 0.82 2.83 0.79 3.12 0.73 60 3.07 3.19 3.32 3.47 1.98 1.09 2.09 1.10 2.25 1.07 2.44 1.03 80 2.62 2.76 2.91 3.07 1.40 1.22 1.51 1.25 1.69 1.22 1.81 1.26 100 2.56 2.70 2.85 2.99 1.36 1.20 1.39 1.31 1.55 1.30 1.74 1.25
44 INDIAN J. CHEM. TECHNOL., JANUARY 2009 Fig. 5 Effect of intraparticle diffusion on the adsorption of RDB [RDB] = 20 mg/l; Adsorbent dose = 50 mg/50 ml suggest that the sorption process proceeds by surface sorption and intraparticle diffusion 20. The initial curved portion of the plot indicates a boundary layer effect while the second linear portion is due to intraparticle or pore diffusion. The slope of the second linear portion of the plot has been defined as the intraparticle diffusion parameter K p (mg/g min 0.5 ). On the other hand, the intercept of the plot reflects the boundary layer effect. The larger the intercept, the greater the contribution of the surface sorption in the rate limiting step. The calculated intraparticle diffusion coefficient K p value are 0.214, 0.268, 0.319, 0.372 and 0.436 mg/g min 0.5 for initial dye concentration of 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 mg/l at 30 o C. Effect of ph The ph is one of the most important parameters controlling the adsorption process. The effect of ph of the solution on the adsorption of RDB ions on TPC was determined (Fig. 6). The uptake of RDB ions at ph 8.0 was the minimum and a maximum uptake was obtained at ph 2.0-6.0. However, when the ph of the solution increased (more than ph 8), the uptake of RDB ions was increased. It appears that a change in ph of the solution results in the formation of different ionic species, and different carbon surface charge. At ph values lower than 6, the RDB ions can enter into the pore structure. At a ph value higher than 6, the zwitterions form of RDB in water may increase the aggregation of RDB to form a bigger molecular form Fig. 6 Effect of ph on the adsorption of RDB [RDB] = 60 mg/l; Adsorbent dose = 50 mg/50 ml; Contact time = 90 min (dimer) and become unable to enter into the pore structure of the carbon surface. The greater aggregation of the zwitterionic form is due to the attractive electrostatic interaction between the carboxyl and xanthene s groups of the monomer 1,22. At a ph value higher than 8, the exisistance of OH - creates a competition between N + and COO - and it will decrease the aggregation of RDB, which causes an increase in the adsorption of RDB ions on the carbon surface. The effect of the charge on the carbon surface and the electrostatic force of attraction and repulsion between the carbon surface and the RDB ions cannot explain the result 17,20,22. Effect of the ionic strength on the adsorption of RDB on TPC The effect of sodium chloride on the adsorption of RDB on TPC is shown in Fig. 7. In a low solution concentration NaCl had little influence on the adsorption capacity. At higher ionic strength the adsorption of RDB will be increased due to the partial neutralization of the positive charge on the carbon surface and a consequent compression of the electrical double layer by the Cl - anion. The chloride ion also enhances adsorption of RDB ion onto TPC by pairing of their charges and hence reducing the repulsion between the RDB molecules adsorbed on the surface. This initiates carbon to adsorb more of positive RDB ions 1,15,22.
HEMA & ARIVOLI: RHODAMINE B ADSORPTION BY ACTIVATED CARBON 45 Rhodamine B from aqueous solution. The values of H, S and G show that the carbon employed has a considerable potential as an adsorbent for the removal of Rhodamine B. Acknowledgement The authors acknowledge sincere thanks to Mrs. Mala Arivoli, The Principal, M. R.Government Arts College, Mannargudi and The Director of Collegiate Education, Chennai for carrying out this research work successfully. Fig. 7 Effect of chloride ions on the adsorption of RDB [RDB] = 60 mg/l; Contact time = 90 min; Adsorbent dose = 50 mg/50 ml Desorption studies Desorption studies help to elucidate the nature of adsorption and recycling of the spent adsorbent and the dye. If the adsorbed dyes can be desorbed using neutral ph water, then the attachment of the dye of the adsorbent is by weak bonds. If sulphuric acid or alkaline water desorp the dye then the adsorption is by ion exchange. If organic acids, like acetic acid can desorp the dye, then the dye has been held by the adsorbent through chemisorption. The effect of various reagents used for desorption studies indicate that hydrochloric acid is a better reagent for desorption, because more than 79% removal of adsorbed dye is achieved. The reversibility of adsorbed dye in mineral acid or base is in agreement with the ph dependent results obtained. The desorption of dye by mineral acids and alkaline medium indicates that the dye is adsorbed onto the activated carbon through by physisorption mechanisms 17,23. Conclusions The experimental data correlated reasonably well by the Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherms and the isotherm parameters were calculated. The low as well high ph value pays the way to the optimum amount of adsorption of the dye. The amount of Rhodamine B adsorbed increased with increasing ionic strength, and increasing temperature. The dimensionless separation factor (R L ) showed that the activated carbon could be used for the removal of References 1 Arivoli S, Ph D. Thesis, Gandhigram Rural University, Gandhigram, (2007). 2 Mittal A, Krishna L & Gupta V K, Sep Puri Technol, 43(2) (2005) 125. 3 Gupta V K, Mittal A, Jain R, Mathur M & Sikarwar S, J Colloid Interface Sci, 303(1) (2006) 80. 4 Gupta V K, Jain R & Varshney Shaily, J Hazard Mater, 142(12) (2007) 443. 5 Stephen Inbaraj B & Sulochana N, Indian J Chem Technol, 9 (2002) 201. 6 Stephen Inbaraj B & Sulochana N, Indian J Chem Technol, 13 (2006) 17. 7 Sekaran G, Shanmugasundaram K A, Mariappan M & Raghavan K V, Indian J Chem Technol, 2 (1995) 311. 8 Selvarani K, Ph. D. Thesis, Regional Engineering College, Thiruchirapalli, (2000). 9 Jia Y F & Thomas K K, Langmuir, 18 (2002) 470. 10 Namasivayam C, Muniasamy N, Gayathri K, Rani M & Renganathan K, Biores Technol, 57 (1996) 37. 11 Namasivayam C & Yamuna R T, Environ Pollut, 89 (1995) 1. 12 Langmuir I, J Am Chem Soc, 40 (1918) 1361. 13 Freundlich H, Phys Chemie, 57 (1906) 384. 14 Krishna D G & Bhattacharyya G, Appl Clay Sci, 20 (2002) 295. 15 Arivoli S, Viji Jain M & Rajachandrasekar T, Mater Sci Res India, 3 (2006) 241. 16 Arivoli S & Hema M, Int J Phys Sci, 2 (2007) 10. 17 Arivoli S, Venkatraman B R, Rajachandrasekar T & Hema M, Res J Chem Environ, 17 (2007) 70. 18 Arivoli S, Kalpana K, Sudha R & Rajachandrasekar T, E J Chem, 4 (2007) 238. 19 Renmin Gong, Yingzhi Sun, Jian Chen, Huijun Liu & Chao Yang, Dyes Pigm, 67 (2005) 179. 20 Vadivelan V & Vasanthkumar K, J Colloid Interface Sci, 286 (2005) 91. 21 Weber W J, Principle and Application of Water Chemistry, edited by S D Faust & J V Hunter (Wiley, New York), 1967. 22 Yupeng Guo, Jingzhu Zhao, Hui Zhang, Shaofeng Yang, Zichen Wang & Hongding Xu, Dyes Pigm, 66 (2005) 123. 23 Sreedhar M K & Anirudhan T S, Indian J Environ Protect, 19 (1999) 8.