How to use this book. How the book is organised. Answering questions. Learning and using the terminology. Developing skills

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How to use this book Welcome to the beginning of your Human and Social Biology course! We hope that you really enjoy your course, and that this book will help you to understand your work, and to do well in your examinations How the book is organised The book is divided up into numbered spreads Each spread covers a particular topic Sometimes, you will find more about a topic on another spread, so be prepared to follow the page references if you want to know more Sometimes, your teacher may give you a worksheet that explains a little more about a topic Answering questions After each section on a spread, you will find a question or two to answer This will help you to think about what you have just read, or seen on a diagram If you answer the questions carefully, it will help you to understand, and this makes it much easier to learn Learning and using the terminology At the end of each spread, there are some sentences for you to copy out and complete You will find all the words you need on the spread They may be shown as bold in the text, or they may be on a diagram or in a table If you keep a full set of your answers to these, they will be really helpful when you do your revision There is a glossary/index on pages 8 to 4, in which there are definitions and page references for many important terms used in the book Developing skills As well as learning a lot of facts, you also need to develop your skills during your course For example, you need to become good at drawing diagrams, interpreting graphs, and selecting the most appropriate information to answer a question There are questions in this book that will help you to develop these skills, and your teacher may give you worksheets that will also help

A Living organisms and the environment The characteristics of living organisms Look around you How many different kinds of living organisms can you see? You and the other people in your class are alive So are the plants growing outside What do they all have in common that makes them different from non-living things? Nutrition All living things take materials from their environment They need these materials to keep them alive This is called nutrition List three kinds of nutrients that you need to eat in your food What is the name of the process by which plants make their food? Respiration All living things respire, all the time Respiration is a chemical reaction It takes place inside every living cell In respiration, energy is released from food The cells can then use the energy What gas do you need for respiration? 4 What gas is produced by respiration? Excretion Some of the chemical reactions inside our body cells make waste substances We need to get rid of these Plants also have waste substances they need to get rid of Getting rid of these wastes is called excretion 5 Kidneys help with excretion What do they excrete? Growth Living organisms grow bigger 6 You began as a single cell What happens to your cells when you grow?

Irritability Living organisms can sense changes in their environment These are called stimuli (singular: stimulus) The organisms may respond to these changes This is called irritability 7 Can you think of a stimulus that both you and a plant can sense and respond to? Movement Living organisms can move Even plants can move parts of their bodies For example, some plants close their leaves up at night 8 What is the name of the structures in your body that you use to make your arms and legs move? Reproduction Living organisms can make more organisms like themselves This is called reproduction 9 How does a flowering plant reproduce? You will learn a lot more about each of these characteristics later in your course If you want to know more now, then use the index to find the pages where they are explained What you need to remember Copy and complete using the key words The characteristics of living organisms There are seven characteristics of living organisms Nutrition is the taking in of which are needed to build bodies and provide energy The energy is released from the food in a chemical reaction called Waste substances produced in the body cells are removed by Living organisms get bigger This is called They can sense changes in their environment and respond to them, which is called Sometimes, these responses involve, for example a plant closing its leaves at night or an animal running away from something Living organisms can make more of themselves This is called

A Living organisms and the environment Animal and plant cells All living organisms are made up of cells Cells are very small Most cells are so small that we cannot see them except with a microscope Look at a ruler that has mm divisions marked on it A cell from a plant s leaf is about 0 mm across How many of these cells could you line up between two of the mm lines on your ruler? Your smallest cells The smallest cells in your body are your red blood cells Each one is only about 5 micrometres across (A micrometre is one thousandth of a millimetre) Red blood cells have a hard life They have to go round and round the body, being pushed through tiny blood capillaries only just wide enough for them They only live, on average, for 0 days Dead ones are collected and disposed of by cells in the liver You have more red blood cells in your body than any other kind of cell probably about 5 000 000 000 000 of them Can you work out how many new red blood cells your body has to make every day, to replace the old ones that die? Animal cells This diagram shows an animal cell The structures inside a cell are called organelles cell membrane The contains the chromosomes of the cell The chromosomes are made of DNA Each chromosome is made up of many genes The genes control the activities of the cell The cell membrane controls what enters and leaves the cell The is like a watery jelly Many different chemical reactions, called metabolic reactions, take place here Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are where respiration takes place This releases energy from food Mitochondria are the power houses of the cell Ribosomes are where proteins are made The genes on the chromosomes tell the cell which proteins to make Make a copy of the diagram of the animal cell and label it Then write the functions of each part next to its name (The function of something is its role what it does) ribosomes mitochondria An animal cell 4

Plant cells This diagram shows a plant cell cell membrane cell wall This cell has three structures that the animal cell does not have The cell wall is an extra, tough layer that surrounds the cell It is made of cellulose It helps to keep the cell in shape It stops the cell from bursting when the cell fills up with water The chloroplasts contain a green substance called chlorophyll Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight, so the chloroplast can use it to make food in photosynthesis chloroplast The vacuole contains a liquid called cell sap Cell sap contains sugars and other substances dissolved in water It is a storage area for the cell mitochondrion Make a copy of the diagram of the plant cell and label it Then write the functions of each part next to its name 4 List three structures that are found in animal cells and in plant cells 5 List three structures that are found in plant cells but not in animal cells 6 The cells in the roots of a plant do not have chloroplasts What could be the reason for this? ribosomes large vacuole containing cell sap A plant cell What you need to remember Copy and complete using the key words Animal and plant cells All cells are surrounded by a in and out of the cell Plant cells also have a helps to hold the cell in shape which controls what goes which Cells contain a watery jelly called There are also several different structures called The of a cell contains chromosomes, made of These control the activities of the cell They provide instructions telling the cell what proteins to make Proteins are made on the Energy for the cell is provided by respiration, which happens inside the Some plant cells have which contain a green substance called 5

A Living organisms and the environment Other kinds of cells Fungi Fungi is the plural of fungus Mushrooms and toadstools are fungi Fungi have cells that are about the same size as plant and animal cells Most fungi are made of many cells vacuole mitochondria cell wall not made of cellulose ribosomes Part of a fungal cell These threads are made up of lots of cells in a line A mushroom Fungi do not have chlorophyll, so they cannot photosynthesise So fungi are not plants Fungi feed on waste material or bodies of animals and plants They secrete (produce) enzymes which digest the food that they are living on Then the digested food is absorbed into their cells This is called saprotrophic nutrition mitochondria Yeast is an unusual fungus It has just one cell Yeast is a single-celled organism Write down three similarities between a cell of a fungus and a cell of a plant Write down two differences between a cell of a fungus and a cell of a plant vacuole cell wall ribosomes A yeast cell 6

Bacteria Bacteria is the plural of bacterium Bacteria are usually made of just one single cell A bacterial cell is much smaller than an animal cell or a plant cell Another difference is that a bacterial cell does not have a DNA cell wall Write down two differences between a bacterial cell and an animal cell Some bacteria, for example the ones that we use to make yoghurt, are helpful to us Other bacteria, for example ones that cause diseases such as tuberculosis, are harmful ribosomes Bacteria live everywhere There are millions upon millions of bacteria in just one small spoonful of soil cell membrane A bacterial cell Viruses Viruses are not made of cells at all They are just a little piece of DNA surrounded by a coat made of protein They are much, much smaller than bacteria You could fit thousands of viruses inside just one human cell Viruses cannot do anything at all for themselves They cannot feed, respire, move or show any of the characteristics of living things They can, however, reproduce, but they can only do this inside other living cells When you get a viral infection, the viruses get inside your cells They hijack the cell, and make it produce more viruses 4 Some people say that viruses are not living organisms a Give one feature of viruses that could mean that they should be classified as living organisms DNA proteins A virus b Give two features of viruses that could mean that they should not be classified as living organisms What you need to remember Copy and complete using the key words Other kinds of cells The cell of a has a cell wall but no chloroplasts It cannot photosynthesise It feeds by secreting enzymes that digest the food it is growing on The cell of a also has a cell wall, but it has no It is much smaller than the cell of a fungus, animal or plant are not made of cells at all They are much smaller even than a bacterium The only characteristic of living things that they have is reproduction, and they can only do that by hijacking a living cell 7

A Living organisms and the environment 4 Specialised cells in humans You began your life as a single cell This cell divided over and over again to form all the cells in your body Most of the new cells became specialised in some way They changed their structure so that they could carry out a particular function This is called differentiation Epithelial cells goblet cell makes and releases mucus Epithelial cells cover a surface The diagram shows the epithelial cells lining your trachea (windpipe) ciliated cell Name the two kinds of specialised cells in the epithelium lining the trachea mucus traps particles Describe what each of these cells does cilia sweep mucus and particles away from the lungs into the mouth Epithelial cells lining the trachea Sperm cells Sperm cells are specialised to fertilise egg cells Describe two ways in which the structure of a sperm cell helps it carry out its function cell membrane many mitochondria to provide energy tail for swimming A sperm cell 00 mm Egg cells Egg cells are much bigger than sperm cells This is because they contain food stores to keep them alive after fertilisation and before they sink into the uterus wall containing food stores mitochondria 0 mm cell membrane An egg cell 8

Nerve cells and muscle cells Nerve cells are sometimes called neurones They carry electrical impulses from one part of the body to another You can see a diagram of a nerve cell on page 4 There are fibres inside the cell that can get shorter, making the cell shorter Muscle cells can get shorter This is called contraction They often do this when they receive an electrical impulse from a nerve cell Muscle cells use a lot of energy when they contract 4 0 mm Muscle cells usually have a lot of mitochondria How does this help them to carry out their function? cell membrane mitochondria Tissues and organs Part of a muscle cell A complete cell is much longer than the part shown Cells that have the same function are often found together A group of specialised cells, working together to carry out a particular function, is called a tissue For example, an epithelium is a tissue that covers a surface It is made of epithelial cells Different tissues may work together in an organ Your stomach is an organ It contains several different kinds of tissues It contains epithelial tissues covering its surface, and muscle tissues in its walls Your body also contains many different connective tissues, which connect and support other tissues What you need to remember Copy and complete using the key words Specialised cells in humans In the human body, different cells become specialised to carry out different functions This is called Cells that cover a surface are called cells The cells that cover the inside of the make mucus which traps dirt and bacteria contain cells have a long tail that helps them to swim to egg cells Egg cells for the new embryo cells carry electrical impulses in the body contract, which means get shorter cells can A group of cells carrying out the same function is called a An, such as the stomach, is made of many different tissues 9

A Living organisms and the environment 5 Diffusion and osmosis Diffusion Particles are always moving around For example, if you open a bottle of perfume, scent molecules (particles) come out of the bottle and go into the air They shoot around randomly in the air If they bump into another molecule, they bounce off and shoot off in a different direction Random collisions disperse the scent molecules Scent molecules concentrated near the bottle To start with, there are a lot of scent molecules near the bottle, and none on the far side of the room But soon they spread all over the room This is called diffusion Diffusion Diffusion of gases into and out of a cell Cells respire This uses up oxygen So there is not much oxygen inside a cell oxygen diffusing down a concentration gradient There is a higher concentration of oxygen outside the cell We say there is a concentration gradient for oxygen Oxygen molecules diffuse into the cell, down their concentration gradient They don t do it on purpose It just happens naturally, as the oxygen molecules move around randomly When the cell respires, what gas does it produce? Suggest how this gas moves out of the cell high concentration of oxygen low concentration of oxygen Diffusion of oxygen into a cell Osmosis This diagram shows a sugar solution Which are larger the water molecules or the sugar molecules? A sugar solution the sugar molecules are shown in blue and water molecules in red 0