CFD calculations of the test 2-4 experiments Author: G. de With
34. Model setup and boundary conditions Dimensions CFD model: x=1000m / y=100m / z=2000m. CFD Model: Transient simulation, with steady-state BCs. Simulation time: 500-1000s, with a 1s time-step size. CFD Mesh: Polyhedral mesh elements. Turbulence model: k- RNG model. Temperature: Energy calculation. Geometry of the CFD model x=0 y=0 z=0 2
35. Initial release of the aerosols The deposition velocity for the smaller aerosols is increased significantly. The initial cloud remains 12m 7m 7m. Cloud shape Deposition parameters June 2010 Droplet diameter (m) Volume activity (%) Deposition velocity (10-4 m/s) 2 10-5 10.0 70 6 10-6 46.6 10 1 10-6 15.0 0.5 2 10-7 28.4 0.01-0.02 Deposition parameters January 2011 12m Droplet diameter (m) Volume activity (%) Deposition velocity (10-4 m/s) 2 10-5 10.0 80 8 10-6 46.6 10 7m 1 10-6 15.0 1.5 2 10-7 28.4 0.5 3
36. Dispersion of 99m Tc Test 3 99m Tc dispersion at t=100 s and 10 Bq/m 3 4
37. Dispersion of 99mTc Test 4 with bus 99mTc dispersion at t=1000 s and 5 Bq/m3 99mTc deposition zoom-in 5
38. 99m Tc in the air and on the ground 99m Tc contamination zones 99m Tc activity on the ground surface per diameter category Droplet diameter (m) January 2010 2. 10-5 /2. 10-7 R 50 zone (m) R 75 zone (m) R 95 zone (m) 7.4 16.6 42.1 June 2010 13.7 36.3 55.6 January 2011 13.8 36.5 55.7 6
39. Deposition of 99m Tc Test 2 Deposition parameters January 2011 Deposition parameters January 2010 1.0E+08 8 1.0E+08 Surface contamination (Bq/m2) 7 1.0E+07 1.0E+066 1.0E+055 1.0E+044 1.0E+033 1.0E+022 1.0E+011 Surface contamination (Bq/m2) 1.0E+07 1.0E+06 1.0E+05 1.0E+04 1.0E+03 1.0E+02 1.0E+01 1.0E+000 0 10 20 30 40 50 1.0E+00 0 10 20 30 40 50 Distance (m) Distance (m) Simulation Simulation Experiment 7
40. 99m Tc in the air and on the ground 99m Tc in the air and on the ground (January 2010) 99m Tc in the air and on the ground (January 2011) 1.0E+10 1,0E+10 1.0E+09 1,0E+09 Activity (Bq) 1.0E+08 1.0E+07 1.0E+06 Activity (Bq) 1,0E+08 1,0E+07 1,0E+06 1.0E+05 1,0E+05 1.0E+04 0 200 400 600 1,0E+04 0 200 400 600 Time (s) Time (s) 99m Tc activity in the air 99m Tc activity in the air 99m Tc activity on the ground 99m Tc activity on the ground 8
41. Conclusions January 2011 simulations FINDINGS Despite the increase in deposition velocities the results from January 2011 are broadly similar to those presented in Seville. The deposition velocity for the smaller aerosols has less impact on the total deposition, due to the fact that the terminal velocity is comparatively low. The total amount of activity that is deposited onto the ground is increased from 1.6% (January 2010) to 4.7%. This is partly a results of the increase in the computational domain. FURTHER WORK Complete the simulation for test 4. KEY CONSIDERATIONS i. Quality of the boundary conditions, ii. quality of the airflow predictions and iii. quality of the dispersion / aerosol models. 9
42. CFD validation against windtunnel experiments For validation of the simulation model experimental data published by Lawson et al. is used. Wind tunnel experiments are performed on the dispersion effects from terrain obstructions in a neutral atmospheric boundary layer. The experiments are performed in the meteorological wind tunnel of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). In the wind tunnel an axi-symmetric hill-shaped object is placed as shown below. 10
43.Sketch of the model geometry Sketch of the model geometry Geometry of the CFD model y r y h 1 c r Lh h c h 155 mm 1550 mm 11
44. Release of ethane on the downstream side of the hill Release of ethane gas from 2 source points. Wind speed of 4 m/s. Atmospheric boundary layer is scaled. Ethane gas concentrations are measured near the ground and used for validation. Use of non-isotropic Reynolds stress turbulence model. CC 2 H 6 Geometry of the CFD model Ethane concentration near the ground 12
45. Geometry of the terrain objects put in context 120 m 155 m 1.5 km 600 m 1.2 km 13
46. Simulation results versus experiments Normalised ethane concentration on the downwind side of the hill 1.E+01 1.E+00 C (-) 1.E-01 1.E-02 1 10 100 x/h (-) 14
47. Conclusions from the validation runs From 10 hill height onwards there is good agreement with the experimental data. Directly behind the release point up to 10 hill heights downstream the the effects from the turbulent flow field are visible, but the comparison with experimental data is moderate. Accurate modelling of the ethane dispersion requires good representation of the wake flow behind the hill. Use of a non-isotropic turbulence model was essential to reproduce the experimental results. The similarities with the Pribram experiments suggest that the lessons learned also apply to the Pribram runs. These are: Apply non-isotropic turbulence model. Apply higher mesh resolution, particular in the downstream region. Apply high numerical accuracy to trigger instabilities in the flow-field 15
37. Comparison between CFD and the guassian based model NUDOS 16
37. 99m Tc in the air and on the ground 0 o North 270 o 90 o Radius = 150 m 180 o 17
37. 20000 CFD versus Gaussian model 20000 16000 16000 c (ug/m 3 ) 12000 8000 12000 8000 3 ) c (ug/m 4000 4000 0 20000 360 320 280 o ) 240 200 160 120 Hoek t.o.v. het noorden ( 80 40 0 0 16000 c (ug/m 3 ) 12000 8000 4000 0 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 Hoek t.o.v. het Noorden ( o ) 18
37. 2500 Gaussian with and without velocity variation 2000 c (ug/m 3 ) 1500 1000 500 20000 16000 0 0 90 180 270 360 Hoek t.o.v. het Noorden ( o ) c (ug/m 3 ) 12000 8000 4000 0 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 Hoek t.o.v. het Noorden ( o ) 19
44. Conclusions from the validation runs From 10 hill height onwards there is good agreement with the experimental data. Directly behind the release point up to 10 hill heights downstream the the effects from the turbulent flow field are visible, but the comparison with experimental data is moderate. Accurate modelling of the ethane dispersion requires good representation of the wake flow behind the hill. Use of a non-isotropic turbulence model was essential to reproduce the experimental results. The similarities with the Pribram experiments suggest that the lessons learned also apply to the Pribram runs. These are: Apply non-isotropic turbulence model. Apply higher mesh resolution, particular in the downstream region. Apply high numerical accuracy to trigger instabilities in the flow-field 20
CFD calculations of the test 2-4 experiments Author: G. de With Seville, Spain
22. Model setup and boundary conditions Dimensions CFD model: x=1000m / y=100m / z=2000m. CFD Model: Transient simulation, with steady-state BCs. Simulation time: 500-1000s, with a 1s time-step size. CFD Mesh: Polyhedral mesh elements. Turbulence model: k- RNG model. Temperature: Energy calculation. Geometry of the CFD model x=0 y=0 z=0 22
23. Initial release of the droplets The starting point of the computation is a cylindrical or cubical formed cloud containing a uniform concentration of 99m Tc. The explosion itself is not computed. The geometry of the cloud and its content are based on discussion with the WG9. The total activity as specified by in the start document. Shape of the initial cloud 4m 1m 7m Dia. versus activity in the cloud Droplet diameter Volume (m) activity (%) 2. 10-5 10.0 6. 10-6 46.6 1. 10-6 15.0 2. 10-7 28.4 12m 23
24. 99m Tc surface contamination (January simulation) x c =10m x c=0m x c =-10m 1.0E+08 99m Tc surface contamination Surface contamination (Bq/m2) 1.0E+07 1.0E+06 1.0E+05 1.0E+04 1.0E+03 1.0E+02 1.0E+01 Position of the 3 lines in the graph relative to the explosion. 1.0E+00 0 10 20 30 40 50 Distance (m) Simulation Experiment 24
25. Deposition of 99m Tc Test 2 (June simulation) June simulation January simulation Surface contam ination ( B q /m 2 ) 1,0E+08 1,0E+07 1,0E+06 1,0E+05 1,0E+04 1,0E+03 1,0E+02 1,0E+01 1,0E+00 X=-10 m X=0 m X=10 m 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Y (m) Surface contamination (Bq/m2) 1.0E+08 1.0E+07 1.0E+06 1.0E+05 1.0E+04 1.0E+03 1.0E+02 1.0E+01 1.0E+00 0 10 20 30 40 50 Distance (m) Simulation Experiment 25
26. 99m Tc in the air and on the ground 99m Tc contamination zones 99m Tc activity on the ground surface per diameter category Droplet diameter (m) R 50 zone (m) R 75 zone (m) R 95 zone (m) Jan. sim. 2. 10-5 /2. 10-7 7.4 16.6 42.1 June sim. 13.7 36.3 55.6 26
27. Dispersion of 99m Tc Test 3 99m Tc dispersion at t=100 s and 10 Bq/m 3 27
28. Deposition of 99m Tc Test 3 (June simulation) 1,0E+08 Surface contamination (Bq/m2) 1,0E+07 1,0E+06 1,0E+05 1,0E+04 1,0E+03 1,0E+02 1,0E+01 1,0E+00 X=-10 m X=0 m X=10 m 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Y (m) 28
29. Dispersion of 99m Tc Test 3 (June simulation) Activity (Bq/m3) 1,2E+05 1,0E+05 8,0E+04 6,0E+04 4,0E+04 Height =0 m Height =1 m Height =2 m Height =3 m Height =4 m Height =5 m 2,0E+04 0,0E+00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Y (m) 29
30. Dispersion of 99m Tc Test 4 with bus 99m Tc dispersion at t=100 s and xx Bq/m 3 30
31. Dispersion of 99mTc Test 4 with bus 99mTc dispersion at t=1000 s and 5 Bq/m3 99mTc deposition zoom-in 31
32. Deposition of 99m Tc Test 4 (June simulation) 1,0E+08 Surface contamination (Bq/m2) 1,0E+07 1,0E+06 1,0E+05 1,0E+04 1,0E+03 1,0E+02 1,0E+01 1,0E+00 X=-10 m X=0 m X=10 m 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Y (m) 32
33. Conclusions CONCLUSIONS Initial plume conditions have a considerable effect on the deposition The deposition are not symmetric across the centreline for test 2 and test 3. Asymmetric results are mainly a result of the chosen wind direction. The chosen wind speed for test 4 is 0.3 m and is a rough estimate. FURTHER WORK Validation of the dispersion calculations using windtunnel data from the ERCOFTAC database. Incorporating atmospheric instability into the simulation 33
Dispersion of 99m Tc in the atmosphere from a detonation Author: G. de With
Contents 1. Introduction 2. Mathematical background 2.1 Airflow modelling 2.2 Droplet dispersion 2.3 Radiation exposure 3. Model setup and boundary conditions 3.1 Model setup 3.2 Boundary conditions 4. Simulation results 4.1 Release of 99m Tc in the atmosphere 4.2 Sensitivity analysis 5. Conclusions 35
1. Introduction Field experiments at NINCBS in Pribram Explosion of 99m Tc in the atmosphere Explosion carried out on a helicopter landing side surrounded by forest Tests side is surrounded by forest and hills. Test side at NINCBS in Pribram Measurements include: Atmospheric conditions e.g. wind speed, direction temperature etc. Droplet specifications, like droplet size and volume activity. Surface contamination and subsequent dose rates.: Radioactive concentrations in the air. 36
2. Mathematical background Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) The calculations are based on the CFD software Fluent, in-house algorithms are included to take account of nuclear decay, deposition and dispersion. Navier-Stokes equations The atmospheric flow is modelled using conservation equations for mass, momentum and energy. Dispersion and deposition of droplets Dispersion and deposition is modelled within an additional conservation equation. Pollution modelling Dispersion of the 99m Tc pollutant is based on atmospheric and thermal flow features. 37
3. CFD conservation equations CFD conservation equations The CFD computation is based on conservation equations for mass, momentum and energy. Turbulent motion is take into account with a k- turbulence model. Forest patches are considered with an extra sink term. A logarithmic boundary model with roughness height is applied to the ground. u 0 u t S eff u, k k k l C d Mass conservation equation u kul P eff uk Su, k a U l Momentum conservation equation t 2 1 C 2 n U Turbulent viscosity 2 Forest patches E t u k E u k P T Energy conservation equation T 38
4. Dispersion modelling of 99m Tc Dispersion of 99m Tc The activity from 99m Tc is based on an additional conservation equation. Turbulent diffusion is based on the k- turbulence model. Brownian diffusion, terminal velocity and nuclear decay are considered. For each droplet diameter a separate conservation equation is required. Evaporation is not included. C t v s m m eff / D k B 3 d u vs, m C i m Dm C m SC, m T Cu l p d gd 18 S C C a 2 d Droplet conservation equation Turbulent diffusion Brownian diffusion Terminal velocity Nuclear decay 39
5. Modelling of droplet deposition Deposition is applied as an extra sink term to the elements adjacent to the ground. The sink term is a function of the deposition velocity and concentration 99m Tc in the numerical element. Only dry deposition is considered. Dry deposition considers: gravitational settling, turbulent motion and Brownian diffusion. Deposition due to rainfall is not considered, but can be applied. J v d dd v Deposition of 99m Tc d C b vs v I 1 exp s * u Sketch of the droplet deposition v d Deposition flux Deposition velocity 40
6. Radiation exposure from 99m Tc Calculation absorbed dose rate The dose rate in each element is computed at the end of the time-step and is based on the accumulated droplet deposition. The activity at each boundary facet is considered a point source. The dose rate is based on the air Kerma rate constant for 99m Tc in air. The air Kerma rate constant ( a ) is 0.018 Gym 2 MBq -1 h -1. K Sketch of the absorbed dose rate j th grid element r p,j a, j a p P b p0 A r p 2 p, j p th boundary facet A p activity 41
8. Initial release of the droplets The starting point of the computation is a cylindrical formed cloud containing a uniform concentration of 99m Tc. The explosion itself is not computed. The geometry of the cloud and its content are based on data provided by the NRPI. Possibilities for an explosion model are feasible and need to be discussed in a technical forum. The total activity in the cloud is 1,058MBq. Shape of the initial cloud 4m 1m Dia. versus activity in the cloud Droplet diameter Volume (m) activity (%) 2. 10-5 10.0 6. 10-6 46.6 1. 10-6 15.0 2. 10-7 28.4 42
9. Velocity boundary conditions Velocity boundary conditions Profiles for wind speed, kinetic energy and dissipation are based on a neutral atmospheric boundary layer. The wind speed is 4 m/s at 10m above ground. The turbulent kinetic energy is 0.27 m 2 /s 2. The dissipation is inverse linear with the height from the ground. U k y y y u u *2 ABL C * ABL u y *3 ABL y ln y 0 y 0 y 0 Logarithmic velocity profile Turbulent kinetic energy profile Turbulent dissipation profile 43
10. Simulation results Simulation process: 1. Performed sensitivity simulations, 2. Fine-tune & calibrate simulation setup, 3. Performed final simulation Performed simulations include: 1 final simulation with droplet spectrum 10 simulations as part of the sensitivity analysis Simulations are benchmarked only against test 2 (15th May 2008) from the NRPI 44
11. Simulated atmospheric flow field Sustainable atmospheric flow Spatial variations in the grid resolution effect the sustainability of the flow field. Mesh sensitivity analysis was performed. Reduced wind speed in the forest patches Flow field is sensitive to wind speed, direction and forest settings Vortex formation in the wake area behind the forest Prediction of the flow field 45
12. Deposition of 99m Tc on the ground surface 99m Tc deposition 99m Tc deposition zoom-in 46
13. 99m Tc in the air and on the ground The total deposition of 99m Tc on the ground 500s after the explosion is 1.6%. After 200s there is no further increase in 99m Tc surface contamination. After 150-200s 99m Tc reaches the outer edges of the computational domain. After 400s there is no significant concentration of 99m Tc in the air. Activity (Bq) 99m Tc activity in the air and on the ground 1.0E+10 1.0E+09 1.0E+08 1.0E+07 1.0E+06 1.0E+05 1.0E+04 0 200 400 600 Time (s) 99m Tc activity in the air 99m Tc activity on the ground 47
14. 99m Tc in the air and on the ground 99m Tc activity on the ground surface per diameter category Droplet diameter Released Percentage Deposition (m) activity deposition (Bq) (Bq) (%) 2. 10-5 / 2. 10-7 1.06. 10 9 1.65. 10 7 1.6 2. 10-5 1.05. 10 8 1.11. 10 7 10.6 6. 10-6 4.97. 10 8 5.24. 10 6 1.1 1. 10-6 1.58. 10 8 5.30. 10 4 0.0 2. 10-7 2.97. 10 8 3.54. 10 4 0.0 48
17. 99m Tc dose rates at 1m above ground 99m Tc equivalent dose rates at 1m above ground 99m Tc absorbed dose rate at 1m above ground 1.0E+02 1.0E-07 1.0E+01 1.0E-08 Doses rates (nsv/h) 1.0E+00 1.0E-01 1.0E-02 Doses rates (Gy/h) 1.0E-09 1.0E-10 1.0E-11 1.0E-03 0 10 20 30 40 50 Distance (m) 1.0E-12 0 10 20 30 40 50 Distance (m) Simulation Simulation Experiment 49
18. 99m Tc concentrations in air 1.0E+06 1.0E+05 1 minute average air concentration 99m Tc Activity (Bq/m3) 1.0E+04 1.0E+03 1.0E+02 1.0E+01 1.0E+00 1.0E-01 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 Time (min) Graph with average concentrations as function of time for 4 positions. The location of the 4 positions is shown in the adjacent picture. 50
19. Results from the sensitivity analysis Simulation 99m Tc activity on the ground surface per diameter category Input parameter Released activity (Bq) Deposition (Bq) Percentage deposition (%) R 95 zone (m) Default model input Default 1.06. 10 9 9.16. 10 6 0.9 38.4 Wind direction option 1 +30 ( o ) 1.06. 10 9 7.86. 10 6 0.7 42.6 Wind direction option 2-30 ( o ) 1.06. 10 9 1.01. 10 7 0.9 25.3 Wind speed option 1 2.0 (m/s) 1.06. 10 9 1.66. 10 7 1.6 36.5 Wind speed option 2 8.0 (m/s) 1.06. 10 9 7.84. 10 6 0.7 30.1 Forrest vegetation option 1 1.0 (m -1 ) 1.06. 10 9 1.14. 10 7 1.1 33.3 Droplet diameter option 1 1. 10 3 (m) 1.06. 10 9 8.20. 10 8 77.5 0.2 Droplet diameter option 2 1. 10 2 (m) 1.06. 10 9 7.75. 10 8 73.3 6.4 Droplet diameter option 3 1. 10 1 (m) 1.06. 10 9 3.52. 10 7 3.3 38.2 Explosion energy option 1 100 (-) 1.06. 10 9 9.16. 10 6 0.9 38.4 51
20. Conclusions CONCLUSIONS CFD simulations give interesting qualitative results Effects from atmospheric conditions on the surface contamination are shown. CFD simulation results are very sensitive to atmospheric boundary conditions and initial cloud conditions. To reproduce the experimental results good climate data at the time of the experiment is required. FURTHER WORK Incorporate a suitable algorithm to simulate the initial stages of the explosion Run a simulation for the final blind-test performed by the NRPI Other things that are of interest are: evaporation, wet-deposition & solar irradiation, LES calculation, automated topography 52
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