BIOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHY AN INTRODUCTION 0 ^ J ty - y\ 2 S CAROL M. LALLI and TIMOTHY R. PARSONS University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada PERGAMON PRESS OXFORD NEW YORK SEOUL TOKYO
ABOUT THIS VOLUME CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 SPECIAL PROPERTIES AFFECTING LIFE IN THE SEA 7 1.2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MARINE ENVIRONMENTS AND MARINE ORGANISMS 8 1.3 BASIC ECOLOGICAL TERMS AND CONCEPTS 10 1.3.1 r- and /(-selection 11 1.4 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF BIOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHY 13 1.5 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 1 19 CHAPTER 2 THE ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENT 2.1 SOLAR RADIATION 2.1.1 Radiation at the sea surface 2.1.2 Radiation in the sea 2.2 TEMPERATURE 2.2.1 Sea surface temperatures 2.2.2 Vertical temperature distribution 2.3 SALINITY 2.3.1 Range and distribution of salinity 2.3.2 Biological importance of salinity 2.4 DENSITY 2.5 PRESSURE 2.6 SURFACE CURRENTS 2.6.1 Biological significance of currents 2.7 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 2 22 23 24 27 28 30 32 33 35 36 39 40 42 42 CHAPTER 3 PHYTOPLANKTON AND PRIMARY PRODUCTION 3.1 SYSTEMATIC TREATMENT 3.1.1 Diatoms 3.1.2 Dinoflagellates 3.1.3 Other phytoplankton 3.2 PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND PRIMARY PRODUCTION 3.2.1 Methods of measuring biomass and primary productivity 3.3 RADIATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS 3.4 THE EFFECT OF NUTRIENTS ON GROWTH RATE 3.5 PHYSICAL CONTROLS OF PRIMARY PRODUCTION 3.5.1 Oceanic gyres and rings 3.5.2 Continental convergence and divergence 3.5.3 Planetary frontal systems 45 46 48 50 52 53 55 59 63 65 68 68
3.5.4 Shelf-break fronts 3.5.5 River-plume fronts 3.5.6 Island mass effect and Langmuir frontal zones 3.6 GLOBAL PHYTOPLANKTON PRODUCTIVITY 3.7 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 3 69 71 72 73 77 CHAPTER 4 ZOOPLANKTON 4.1 COLLECTION METHODS 4.2 HOLOPLANKTON: SYSTEMATICS AND BIOLOGY 4.3 MEROPLANKTON 4.4 VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION 4.5 DIEL VERTICAL MIGRATION 4.6 SEASONAL VERTICAL MIGRATIONS 4.7 ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLOPLANKTON 4.7.1 Patchiness 4.8 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 4 80 81 92 95 100 103 106 109 112 CHAPTER 5 ENERGY FLOW AND MINERAL CYCLING 5.1 FOOD CHAINS AND ENERGY TRANSFER 5.2 FOOD WEBS 5.2.1 The microbial loop 5.3 MEASURING SECONDARY PRODUCTION 5.3.1 Field studies 5.3.2 Experimental biological oceanography 5.4 A COMPARISON OF MARINE AND TERRESTRIAL PRODUCTION 5.5 MINERAL CYCLES 5.5.1 Nitrogen 5.5.2 Carbon 5.6 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 5 115 120 124 127 127 129 138 140 141 145 147 CHAPTER 6 NEKTON AND FISHERIES OCEANOGRAPHY 6.1 NEKTONIC CRUSTACEA 6.2 NEKTONIC CEPHALOPODS 6.3 MARINE REPTILES 6.4 MARINE MAMMALS 6.5 SEABIRDS 6.6 MARINE FISH 6.6.1 Fish migrations 6.7 FISHERIES AND FISHERIES OCEANOGRAPHY 6.7.1 World fish catch and fisheries management 6.7.2 Fluctuations in the abundance of fish stocks 151 152 153 154 158 160 166 167 167 169!
6.7.3 Regulation of recruitment and growth in fish 6.7.4 Fishing and the use of near real-time oceanographic data 6.8 MARICULTURE 6.9 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 6 171 174 176 179 CHAPTER 7 BENTHOS 7.1 7.1.1 7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.3 7.4 BENTHIC PLANTS Measurements of benthic primary production BENTHIC ANIMALS Systematics and biology Sampling and production measurements DETERMINANTS OF COMMUNITY STRUCTURE SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 7 183 185 186 187 197 199 200 CHAPTER 8 BENTHIC COMMUNITIES 8.1 8.1.1 8.1.2 8.2 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.3 8.4 8.4.1 8.4.2 8.5 8.5.1 8.6 8.6.1 8.6.2 8.6.3 8.6.4 8.6.5 8.6.6 8.6.7 " 8.6.8 8.7 8.7.1 8.7.2 8.7.3 8.7.4 8.8 8.8.1 8.8.2 8.8.3 INTERTIDAL ENVIRONMENTS Tides Environmental conditions and adaptations of intertidal organisms ROCKY INTERTIDAL SHORES Zonation Trophic relations and the role of grazing and predation in determining community structure KELP FORESTS SAND BEACHES Environmental characteristics Species composition ESTUARIES Impacts of humans on estuaries CORAL REEFS Distribution and limiting factors Coral structure Diversity Nutrition and production in reefs Production estimates Formation and growth of reefs Zonation patterns on reefs Destruction and conservation of reefs MANGROVE SWAMPS What are mangroves? Ecological features of mangrove swamps Importance and uses of mangroves Effects of disturbance DEEP-SEA ECOLOGY Faunal composition Species diversity Biomass 203 203 206 208 211 211 212 215 221 222 225 226 228 229 230 233 233 234 236 237 238 238 243 244
8.8.4 8.8.5 8.8.6 8.9 8.9.1 8.9.2 8.9.3 8.9.4 8.10 Food sources Rates of biological processes Future prospects HYDROTHERMAL VENTS AND COLD SEEPS Chemosynthetic production Vent fauna Shallow vents and cold seeps Unique environmental features of sulphide communities SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 8 245 248 249 250 250 251 253 254 255 APPENDIX 1 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE 259 APPENDIX 2 CONVERSIONS 260 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING 262 ANSWERS AND COMMENTS TO QUESTIONS 263 GLOSSARY 279 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 293 INDEX 296