UNIT 3 The Study of the Universe Chapter 7: The Night Sky Chapter 8: Exploring Our Stellar Neighbourhood Chapter 9:The Mysterious Universe
CHAPTER 8 Exploring Our Stellar Neighbourhood In this chapter, you will: discuss a range of technologies used to study objects in the sky assess some of the costs, hazards, and benefits of space exploration describe the Sun s composition and energy source and explain how the Sun s energy warms Earth and supports life on the planet compare star temperatures and colours and understand how stars evolve
Preparing for a Trip to The Moon (Page 315) What factors must be considered when planning a trip to the Moon?
8.1 Exploring Space (Page 317) People explore to better understand the world around them and to find new resources and places to live. It is difficult, costly, and dangerous to send humans into space. In addition to manned space exploration, humans can explore space from Earth using telescopes and other instruments, as well as through the use of unmanned space satellites, probes, orbiters, and landers.
Exploring Space With Telescopes (Page 318) The telescopes that astronomers use to study space all detect electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation is radiation consisting of electromagnetic waves that travel at the speed of light. The electromagnetic spectrum is shown below.
Optical Telescopes (Page 319) Optical telescopes detect visible light. Refracting telescopes use a lens to collect the light from an object. Reflecting telescopes use mirrors to collect the light. They both require darkness and clear skies.
Non-optical Telescopes (Page 319) Non-optical telescopes detect non-visible radiation. Radio telescopes detect radio waves. Since radio waves can travel through clouds and do not require night-time conditions to be detected, they can be studied in both day and night and even in cloudy weather.
Much of the radiation that reaches Earth from space is absorbed by the atmosphere and never reaches Earth s surface. Placing telescopes above the atmosphere allows us to explore space in more detail, but there are advantages and disadvantages to the technology. Telescopes in Space (Page 320)
MOST: Canada s Humble Space Telescope (Page 321) MOST (Microvariability and Oscillation of STars) is Canada s first space telescope. MOST studies stars that are similar to our Sun, one star at a time. A comparison between MOST and the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is shown to the right.
Studying Objects in Different Wavelengths (Page 322) Different telescopes reveal different information about an object, depending on the wavelength of radiation that is measured. On the left are four images of Saturn, each from a telescope that detects a different wavelength. The wavelengths reveal different features of Saturn s atmosphere.
Planetary Orbiters and Landers (Page 323) Messenger Orbiter Orbiters are observatories that orbit other planets. Orbiters use digital cameras to provide high-resolution images not obtainable from Earth. Mars Climate Orbiter Phoenix Lander Landers are spacecraft designed to land on planets. Landers cannot move around so they sample only a fraction of the environment being explored.
The Lidar Instrument (Page 324) Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) is an instrument that uses a laser to analyse atmospheric conditions, collecting information on the size, movement, and composition of clouds and dust particles above. The Lidar device on the Mars Phoenix Lander was constructed and operated by Canadian scientists. The device has provided valuable information about the Martian atmosphere.
Satellites (Page 325) Satellites are artificial (human-made) objects or vehicles that orbit Earth, the Moon, or other celestial bodies. Celestial bodies (like the Moon) that orbit a larger-sized celestial body are natural satellites. Communication satellites play a role in the operation of television, telephones, and the Internet. GPS satellites aid in navigation, farming, and search and rescue operations.
Remote Sensing Satellites (Page 325) Satellites that orbit less than 700 km above Earth s surface are called low-earth-orbit satellites. These satellites can survey Earth quickly and cover a lot of surface. This makes these remote sensing satellites very useful for the sciences of meteorology (weather), climatology (climate), oceanography (oceans), and hydrology (water). The ENVISAT images above show changes in ice cover. ENVISAT (ENVironmental SATellite) is a remotesensing satellite that Canada helped fund. ENVISAT monitors cloud cover, ocean ice, ocean height, land surfaces, and major lakes and rivers.
Geosynchronous Satellites (Page 327) Geosynchronous satellites orbit Earth in an eastward direction at an altitude of 35 800 km above the equator. At this altitude, the satellites remain over the same location above the equator, making them stationary with respect to Earth (geostationary). These satellites are most commonly used for communication purposes such as television and satellite radio.
The international Space Station (Page 327) The International Space Station (ISS) orbits about 360 km above Earth, where it serves as a space-based laboratory. The ISS provides many opportunities for conducting research in a microgravity (or weightless) environment. The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) has been involved with the ISS since its beginning.
Canadian Contributions to the ISS (Page 328) Chris Hadfield Canada has contributed astronauts to the construction and operation of the ISS. Julie Payette Dextre Robert Thirsk Roberta Bondar Astronaut Hadfield on Canadarm2 The Canadian-designed Canadarm, Canadarm2, and Dextre robotic fixtures were and continue to be essential for the construction, operation, and maintenance of the ISS.
Reviewing Satellite Orbits Click the Start button to review satellite orbits.
The Cost and Ethics of Space Exploration (Page 330) It takes years of designing and testing the equipment, spacesuits, and the computer software needed to send people and vehicles into space. As a result, space exploration is very expensive. In addition, sending humans into space is extremely risky, and human lives have been lost on space missions. A variety of issues must be considered. A person s ethics are the set of moral principles and values that guide a person s activities, helping him or her decide what is right.
Space Junk Space junk can cause a great deal of damage to spacecraft and satellites if they happen to collide with it. (Pages 330-1) Space agency scientists are researching ways to clean up and reduce the amount of space junk currently orbiting Earth.
Section 8.1 Review (Page 332) Concepts to be reviewed: What are the two types of optical telescopes? How do they function? What other types of radiation can be detected by telescopes? What are the alternatives to human exploration of space? What are the hazards, benefits, and ethical issues related to space exploration? How has Canada contributed to the exploration of space?
8.2 Exploring the Sun (Page 333) Our Sun, a star, is the most important celestial object for life on Earth. The solar nebula theory is the current theory used to explain the formation of the Sun. Stars are celestial bodies made of hot gases, mainly hydrogen and some helium. The solar nebula theory describes how stars and planets form from contracting, spinning disks of gas and dust. Nebulas are vast clouds of gas and dust that may be the birthplace of stars and planets.
How the Solar System Formed (Page 334) How does a solar system form? It is believed that gravity sets the gas and dust particles of a nebula in motion around the core of a young star or protostar (a condensed, hot object at the middle of a nebula). Particles begin to gather in the centre of the spinning cloud. As the spinning nebula begins to contract, tiny grains start to collect and eventually clump into planetesimals. If the planetesimals survive, they may eventually form planets like those in our solar system. Craters on rocky planets could have formed during early formation.
A Flat, Rotating Disk (Page 335) As nebulas spin, they flatten into a disk-like shape while spinning in one direction. Astronomers theorize that any planets and other bodies that form at this stage would form in the flat plane of the disk. The planets would then orbit in that same direction. Astronomers have discovered over 300 planets orbiting stars other than the Sun. These planets are called extrasolar planets. Several extrasolar planets (a-d) are shown orbiting the star HR8799.
How the Sun Formed (Page 336) When a star-forming nebula collapses and contracts, the gas compresses and the temperature of the protostar increases. When the temperature reaches around 10 000 000 o C, nuclear fusion begins. Nuclear fusion is the process of energy production in which hydrogen nuclei combine to form helium nuclei. Once the fusion process begins, the protostar starts to consume the hydrogen fuel. The denser helium builds up in the star s core, and the core continues to heat up, increasing the pressure and temperature. The continuing hydrogen fusion increases the size of the core.
Features of the Sun (Page 337) The surface layer of the Sun is known as the photosphere. This layer is several thousand kilometres deep. Dark spots on the photosphere, called sunspots, are areas of strong magnetic fields. The sunspots look dark because they are cooler than the surrounding photosphere. Astronomers have observed that sunspots near the Sun s poles take about 35 days to complete one rotation while sunspots near the equator take 27 days. This proves that the Sun rotates but faster at its equator than at the poles. Sunspot activity occurs in 22 year cycles, peaking every 11 years.
Solar Flares (Page 338) Occasionally solar flares can occur where there are complex groups of sunspots. Solar flares eject intense streams of charged particles into space. If one of these streams, called solar wind, hits Earth, spectacular auroras can be produced by Earth s magnetic field. These events, called solar storms, can disrupt telecommunications, damage electronic equipment on spacecraft, and overload Earth s electrical power network.
The Importance of the Sun (Page 339) The Sun drives most processes on Earth that support our daily activities. It powers the winds and ocean currents, drives all weather, and provides the energy for the photosynthesis that provides food at the base of all food chains and the oxygen we breathe. The Sun produces radiation across the entire electromagnetic spectrum, including the radiation that heats Earth.
Section 8.2 Review (Page 340) Concepts to be reviewed: How does the solar nebula theory explain the formation of the solar system? What evidence do astronomers have that the solar nebula theory might be at work elsewhere in the universe? What is the Sun s energy source? How is this energy released? What are sunspots and solar flares? How can they affect Earth? How does energy that originated from the Sun warm Earth?
8.3 Exploring Other Stars (Page 341) The night sky is filled with stars that shine at different levels of brightness. The brightness of the stars we observe can be related to the size of the star or its distance from Earth. Our Sun has an absolute magnitude of 4.7. By universal standards, this is quite dim. The brightness or luminosity of a star is described as its energy output per second. The star s power is measured in joules per second (J/s). The absolute magnitude of a star is the brightness we would observe if the star were placed 32.6 lightyears from Earth.
The Colour, Temperature, Composition, and Mass of Stars (Pages 342-3) Astronomers use the colour of stars to determine temperature. In order of increasing temperature, stars can be red, orange, yellow, or blue. A star s mass can be determined if it is part of a binary star system. Binary stars orbit each other. Stars range from 0.08 to over 100 solar masses. Our Sun is 1 solar mass. Spectroscopes (devices that produce a spectrum from a narrow beam of light) produce spectral lines that can be used to determine the chemical composition of a star. The spectral lines produced by the spectroscope have black lines that indicate the presence of specific elements.
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram (Page 343) The Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram is a graph that compares the properties of stars. The graph compares absolute magnitude/ luminosity on the y-axis to temperature/colour on the x-axis.
The Main Sequence (Page 344) The main sequence is a narrow band of stars on the H-R diagram that runs diagonally from the upper left (bright, hot stars) to the lower right (cool, dim stars). About 90% of all stars, including the Sun, are in the main sequence. Some main sequence properties are listed below. Astronomers are not sure why all stars do not fall into the main sequence.
How Stars Evolve (Page 345) Stars, in general, do not change very rapidly. Many stars shine for billions of years with no change. Eventually a star will run out of fuel and will start undergoing changes as it nears the end of its life. Low-mass stars (red dwarfs) have less mass than our Sun. They slowly burn their fuel for up to 100 billion years and then end up as small, dim hot stars called white dwarfs. When cooled, they become black dwarfs. Intermediate-mass stars, like our Sun, consume their fuel within 10 billion years. They cool, and the outer layers expand the star into a red giant. The layers disappear and eventually they become white dwarfs.
How Stars Evolve (Page 345) High-mass stars are 12 or more times more massive than our Sun. These stars consume their fuel faster than intermediate-mass stars and die more quickly and violently. Heavy elements form by fusion, and the star expands into a supergiant. An iron core forms that eventually collapses, resulting in a massive explosion of the outer part of the star. This spectacular explosion is called a supernova. Supernova explosions can be millions of times brighter than the original star. Elements from the explosion are ejected into the universe, later becoming part of new stars and planets.
Neutron Stars (Page 347) A neutron star is a star so dense that only neutrons can exist at the core. This type of star forms when a star of about 12 to 15 solar masses shrinks to approximately 20 km in diameter. The pressure is so great that electrons are squished into protons. A neutron star in the Crab Nebula behaves as a pulsar (a type of neutron star), sending pulses of radiation into space like a giant searchlight.
Black Holes (Page 348) Stars of over 25 solar masses experience the most spectacular deaths. The remnant of the supernova explosion is so massive that gravity overwhelms all other forces, and the remnant is crushed into a black hole. The black hole is a tiny patch of space that has no volume but has enormous mass. The gravitational force of a black hole is so strong that nothing can escape it, not even light. How do scientists find a black hole? Scientists detect the gravitational effect it exerts on the space around it.
Section 8.3 Review (Page 349) Concepts to be reviewed: What does a star s apparent brightness depend on? What is the significance of the Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram? What determines a star s position in the H-R diagram? What determines the changes a star will go through during its evolution?