25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 1 OPEN PROBLEMS IN FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS Cesare Bini -- Sapienza Università, Roma Pontificia Università Lateranense --24/11/2016
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 2 Outline Why fundamental physics? How such an ambitious program is carried out? The elementary particle physics The method Where do we stand now Are we at the end of the story? The open problems Conclusions and outlook
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 3 Why fundamental physics? It is the answer to what most scientists actually expect: Nature at its deepest can be described by a limited number of fundamental laws, the description of all natural phenomenologies should at last be possible simply based on this set of laws. Characters of these fundamental laws that scientists expect: UNIVERSALITY UNITY SIMPLICITY, BEAUTY These are expections driven by centuries of experience..
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 4 Example-1: the gravitation Any pair of particles with masses m 1 and m 2 aeract each other with a mutual force given by: F = G m 1m 2 R 2 Where: m 1 ed m 2 = masses of the particles R = distance between the two particles G = universal constant I.Newton (1642-1727) It is a UNIVERSAL law: It is valid for ALL particles irrespective of how they are composed: it depends only on their masses and distance. It gives rise to a UNIFICATION of different phenomena: planets, stars, galaxies, our bodies on the earth surface In 1798 Cavendish experiment: AEraction btw 2 balls is measured è mass of the earth! H.Cavendish (1731-1810)
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 5 Example-2: the electromagnetism The Maxwell equations: a synthesis of Electricity; Magnetism; Optics. This is another UNIVERSAL property of Nature: ρ J (charges and currents) E B are the fields è the forces It is an extraordinary UNIFICATION Maxwell equations in relativistically covariant version: the beauty µ F µν = 4π c jν µ ˆF µν = 0 J.C.Maxwell (1831-1879) Maxwell understands that: c = v (light) ~ 300,000 km/s Here is what is the light!!!
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 6 A parenthesys: mathematics and physics When the properties of Nature are summarized in mathematical formulas, these reveal properties that are hindered by Nature itself. Example: the complete symmetry between E and B is not evident if we simply collect experimental facts. E.Wigner: The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics (1959)
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 7 The great illusion around 1900 There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now. All that remains is more and more precise measurement. Lord Kelvin: Address at the British Association for the advancement of the Science (1900) But soon after 1900 completely new and unexpected phenomena were discovered and the fundamental physics re-started William Thomson (lord Kelvin) (1824-1907)
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 8 How such an ambitious program is carried out? Two main directions: Direction1: the -ly small: few elementary bricks and few forces among them. the idea of Democritus et al. something present in most of history of philosophy. Direction2: the -ly big: the Universe as a whole, its large scale structure, its origin, its fate. Cosmology has been always present in any culture BUT in XXth century a cosmology based on observation has been founded! In the following: I go through Direction1: from Rutherford to Higgs, a whole century of discoveries
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 9 Elementary Particle Physics: the method Experimental side: -- make things collide and see what comes out -- the higher the energy of the projectiles and àthe smaller the size I can resolve à the larger is the number of new particles I can create Theory side: -- Quantum Field Theory is the language that puts together quantum mechanics and special relativity. à The Standard Model of elementary particles and interactions has been developed. λ = h p d
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics Particle Cosmology Interplay 10
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 11 From AdA to LHC: the accelerators Accelerators get bigger and bigger to allow particles to reach higher energies à To probe lower dimensions à To allow production of new particles AdA: Frascati 1960 s LEP-LHC tunnel built in the 1980 s Still operating
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 12 From Rutherford to ATLAS: the detectors Detectors: the eyes to see the results of the particle collisions The Rutherford experiment 1911 All the apparatus on the desk The ATLAS experiment at LHC
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 13 The Big Science What does it mean to do a particle physics experiment? A lot of money Many people (engeneers, technicians, physicists) A lot of time (from design to end of data taking, it takes 20-30 years) Sociological/Political implications: Need of specialization Management structures Democracy in the choices?
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 14 Quantum Field Theory - I QFT: attempt to include Special Relativity in the framework of the Quantum Mechanics (started with P.Dirac in 1928) èa new mathematical language that allows to make predictions on elementary particle processes. It is the bridge between experimental facts and our picture of fundamental structure of the Universe For a given initial state, the probability to get a given final state Quantity comparable with measured frequency in the experiment The FIELD is the fundamental entity, what is a FIELD?
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 15 Quantum Field Theory - II What is a FIELD? It is a complex function of spacetime f(x,t). Quantized oscillations can be excited and give rise to particles. Elementary particles are described as fields. R.P.Feynman (1918-1988) But also forces are described as fields!! A new approach to what a force is: à Interactions through the exchange of mediators fields ( gauge bosons γ, W/Z, g)
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 16 The elementary fields: the new periodic table What is really elementary in the Universe? Elementary particles (the bricks): Quarks (6 types) Leptons (6 types) Force Mediators: Photon (electromagnetism) W/Z (weak nuclear) Gluon (strong nuclear) The gravitation is missing Ordinary matter atoms, The Super-World
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 17 Where do we stand now? The Standard Model (many authors, Dirac, Schwinger, Feynman, Glashow, Weinberg, Salam, t Hooft, Higgs, ) A description of the elementary particles and their interactions in terms of fields è predictions of quantities that can be measured. It is a testable, falsifiable theory The Standar Model Lagrangian
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 18 The heart of the Standard Model How is the Standard Model Lagrangian built?? The driving line of this building was the respect of symmetry properties (Lorentz and gauge symmetries). Noether s theorem The form of the interactions is somehow a consequence of the request of symmetry: Symmetry dictates the interaction
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 19 Crisis and a solution Crisis (in the 60s): the mass terms violate the symmetry properties, but we observe the masses. How is this possible? è Idea of P.Higgs, R.Brout and F.Englert: a new field directly interacting with all other fields give them the property to have a rest mass. This allows to maintain the symmetry properties of the theory How an idea can be accepted? Only if it makes predictions that can be tested The predictions is: the Higgs field give rise to a particle with specific decay properties: è Experiments to look for this particle
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics Higgs hunting: 1964 2012 How an idea can be accepted? Only if it makes predictions that can be tested The predictions is: the Higgs field give rise to a particle with specific decay properties: è Experiments to look for this particle 2012: ATLAS and CMS @ LHC Observes a particle consistent with the Higgs boson 20
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 21 Is the Standard Model in good health? Definitely YES! All predictions done are in agreement with available experimental results. An example: the magnetic moment of the muon The experiment: iron, magnets, detectors, The theory: many, many calculations Experiment : = (116591802±49) 10-11 Theory : = (116592089±63) 10-11
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 22 So: are we at the end of the story? Is the Standard Model the Theory of Everything? Can we, in 2016 say what Lord Kelvin said in 1900? NO: there are two categories of problems: The SM is incomplete The SM is logically unsatisfactory In the following, a list of 6 Open problems
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 23 1) What about gravitation? The Standard Model doesn t include gravitational processes. Gravitation is described by the General Relativity, a classical theory. Quantum effects are incompatible with the smooth space-time of general relativity. From B.Greene The Elegant Universe The quantization of the gravitational field is a dream of the theoretical physics since several decades
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 24 2) The dark matter Several indications of existence of Dark Matter (85% of the total) à From astronomical observations à From cosmological data Rotation curve of the spiral galaxy M 33 vs. predictions based on visible matter only Cosmic Microwave Background The search for the Dark Matter is open since long time (LHC, Gran Sasso Lab., ) but still nothing solid found Gravitational lensing
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 25 3) The dark energy Observation (in the 90s) of the accelerating universe expansion è There must be a repulsive driving force against gravitation è The picture is compatible with a cosmological constant Λ, an energy permeating the Entire Universe. The value of Λ is out of our understanding. What is it? It is apparently the most significant ingredient of our Universe. And we don t know it at all
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 26 The emerging picture: the Dark Universe The Universe is flat and Dark-Energy dominated. The Standard Model accounts only for less than 5% of the full energy budget of the Universe. Combination of Data from several Different sources Only 5% of the total energy of the Universe is accounted by the Standard Model Many direct and indirect searches are ongoing on both Darks
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 27 4) The matter-antimatter asymmetry Anti-Matter: postulated by P.Dirac in 1928 soon discovered (positron) in 1932, almost symmetric with matter. BUT: Why is our Universe done with Matter only?? Baryogenesis problem: in order to explain the present matter-antimatter asymmetry η = (n B -n AntiB )/n B 10-9 we need some symmetry violations : Violation of baryon number conservation C and CP-violation The Standard Model accounts for both but not with in a sufficient way. è No solution for the baryogenesis problem.
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 28 5) Too many parameters About 20 parameters in the SM: -- masses of the elementary particles -- intensities of the interactions Numbers not predicted, to be measured. This is not acceptable. Why these values? Is any theory able to predict them? Moreover: why the four fundamental forces have so different intensities? From this argument: à Anthropic principle à Multiverse conjecture Force Intensity Range (m) Gravity 10-35 Nuclear weak 10-15 10-15 Electromagnetic 10-2 Nuclear strong 1 10-18
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 29 6) Something unnatural There is something very unsatisfactory for theorists è The Higgs mass: The experiment finds m H = 125 GeV The theorist calculates it: m H = m bare + m corr m bare is a free parameter, m corr =10 18 GeV!! à the theorist has to assume mbare = 125-10 18 GeV è The Cosmological Constant: From observation we find Λ = (10-3 ev) 4 The theorist calculates it: Λ = Λ bare + Λ corr Where Λ corr = (10 12 ev) 4 à the theorist has to assume Λ bare =(10-3 -10 12 ev) 4 In both cases a fine-tuning is needed, very unnatural to believe
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 30 A solution please Many attempts in the market. GUT (Grand Unified Theories) SuperSymmetry Hidden Valley String and Super-String theories Extra-dimensions Any new fundamental theory should provide predictions that can be tested in experiments The Program: ENERGY frontier INTENSITY frontier SENSITIVITY frontier
25/11/16 Open problems in fundamental physics 31 CONCLUSION The Fundamental Physics has been and is a wonderful adventure of many people with several still OPEN problems to solve. The Standard Model is from many points of view unsatisfactory The impression is that the end of the story is far from being reached: any step forward opens new frontiers to face like a boeomless pit