A nuclear power plant is infinitely safer than eating, because 300 people choke to death on food every year. Dixy Lee Ray, former chair of the US Atomic Energy Commission, 1977
Nuclear Chemistry Production of Materials
Atoms contain protons and neutrons in a nucleus surrounded by electrons in energy level shells. Isotopes of an element are atoms of that element containing the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. Number of protons tells us what chemical species we have
Isotopes are named by their mass number.
Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a nucleus is unstable Isotopes of the same element have the same atomic number (Z) but a different mass number (A). eg 235 U, 238 U have Z = 92 Only 279 of about 2000 known isotopes are stable. In a stable isotope nucleus, the protons and neutrons are in a low energy level and are unable to emit radioactivity. Radioactive isotopes are unstable. They emit radiation as they spontaneously release energy. This is called radioactive decay. An unstable isotope is called a radioactive isotope or radioisotope.
The zone of stability Plot number of neutrons (A-Z = N) against number of protons (Z) Ratio N/Z of 1:1 up to Z = 20 Ratio N/Z of 1:1.3 at Z = 50 Ratio N/Z of 3:2 at Z = 80 1. If N/Z ratio is too high or too low the isotope is unstable. Unstable isotopes lie outside the Zone of Stability (grey) in the blue area or beyond 2. Elements with Z > 83 (bismuth) are unstable and radioactive
2005 question 1 x x x
2009 question 1 Which of the following is an important factor in predicting the nuclear stability of an isotope? (A)Atomic radius (B) Nuclear radius x x (C) The ratio of neutrons to protons (D)The ratio of electrons to protons x
2006 question 3 x x x
2002 1. If the ratio of the number of neutrons (N) to the number of protons (atomic number, Z) is too high i.e. (N:Z) > 1 or too low the isotope is unstable. 2. Elements with an atomic number of Z > 83 are also unstable and radioactive
Radioisotopes can emit 3 types of radiation Sheet of paper (most destructive) 0.5mm sheet of Pb 5cm thickness of Pb or 15cm of concrete (high energy) How do they behave in an electric field?
Modes of Radioactive decay neutrons atomic number mass number Neutron proton + electron Remember, the atomic number (Z) determines what element we have
Balancing equations for nuclear reactions Formation of tritium in a nuclear reactor: Formation of cobalt-60 in a nuclear reactor: -particle Because cobalt-60 has a neutron to proton ratio of 1.22 that is somewhat too high for the isotope with atomic number 27 to be stable - it lowers its neutron to proton ratio by emitting a beta particle (and gamma radiation) -particle -particle
Z = 28
The decay series of U238 -decay Unstable -decay stable An isotope will continue to decay until it becomes stable remember two reasons!
2002 Give both an example of alpha decay and beta decay. What is an alpha and beta particle? Explain how the atomic number and mass number change as a result of alpha and beta decay. Why is 206 Pb stable?
A fission reaction chamber A nuclear power plant uses controlled nuclear fission : energy & new isotopes
Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced This example is only one of many possible results of nuclear fission.
6 new isotopes formed! And lots of neutrons
Nuclear reactions (a) atomic bombs (b) nuclear reactor All neutrons released can initiate further fission reactions All but one of the emitted neutrons are captured so that a steady controlled reaction proceeds
A light water nuclear reactor
so, in summary. When the uranium nucleus breaks up into two nuclei, many different possible isotopes can form (eg Rb, Cs, Kr, Ba). Differences in chemical properties of the elements produced can be used to chemically separate the different radioisotopes. Any U-235 that has not undergone fission can be separated and recycled into new fuel rods. The high-speed neutrons emitted can be used to bombard atoms of various elements to produce useful neutron rich isotopes.
Describe how transuranic isotopes are produced Transuranic elements are elements with an atomic number (Z) greater than 92 (the atomic number of uranium). Example: Neptunium & plutonium are generated by bombarding U-238 with neutrons (to form U-239) followed by subsequent beta decay. Transuranic elements from atomic number 96 and up are all made by accelerating a small positive nucleus (such as He, B or C) in a charged particle accelerator to collide with a heavy nucleus (often of a previously made transuranic element) target.
93, Np Neptuniam named after Neptune 94, Pu Plutonu named after Pluto 95, Am Americium where first produced! 96, Cm Curium after Curie s 97, Bk Berkelium city where University of California is located, Berkeley 98, Cf Califorium state where University of California is located 99, Es Einsteinium after Albert Einstein 100, Fm Fermium after physicist Enrico Fermi (chain reaction) 101, Md Mendelevium after russian chemist Mendeleyev (periodic table) 102, No Nobelium 103, Lr Lawrencium after Ernest Lawrence (cyclotron) 104, Rf Rutherfordium after Ernest Rutherford (atomic nucleus concept) 105, Db Dubnium Also called hahnium 106, Sg Seaborgium after Glenn Seaborg (chemist) 107, Bh Bohrium after Danish Physicist Neils Bohr (atom) 108, Hs Hassium after German Bundesland 109, Mt Meitnerium ater German physicist Lise Meitner (fission) 110, Ds Darmstadtium after Darmstadt, Germany 111, Rg Roentgenium after Wilhelm Roentgen (X-ray) The existence of elements up Z = 116 has also been confirmed
2010 Question 2 Which of the following is an example of a transuranic element? (A) C 14 (B) Co 60 (C) U 238 (D) Cm 249 x x x
2003 Commercial radioisotopes produced by fission reactions Bombard an isotope (eg U-235) with a high speed neutron from an accelerator. Give an example of two commercial radioisotopes produced eg Ba, Kr Fission reactions also produce excess neutrons that need to be controlled. How are neutrons controlled? describe a nuclear reactor, control rods Define a transuranic element atomic number >92. They do not occur naturally as they are unstable. They can be made by bombarding U238 with neutrons which then undergo beta decay They can also be made by bombarding an element with a small positive nucleus (He, B, or C) using a particle accelerator
2006 Define a transuranic element atomic number >92. Do not occur naturally as they are unstable. Discuss fission reactions, nuclear reactors and the need to control the reaction Can be made by bombarding U238 with neutrons which then undergo beta decay Can also be made by bombarding element with a small positive nucleus (He, B, or C) using a particle accelerator
Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation Remember: High energy radiation that causes ionisation of atoms is called ionising radiation and is potentially harmful to living things. 1. Most radioactive emissions are ionising radiation and are usually detected by a Geiger-Müller counter
Geiger-Müller counter
Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation Remember: High energy radiation that causes ionisation of atoms is called ionising radiation and is potentially harmful to living things. 1. Most radioactive emissions are ionising radiation and are usually detected by a Geiger-Müller counter. Best for particles, but can be used for and. Knocks an electron out of Ar atoms, giving rise to an electric pulse. 2. Low energy radiation that is too weak to ionise atoms is called nonionising radiation and can be detected by a scintillation counter (phosphor crystal that fluoresces when struck by radiation). 3. Vapour trails occur in cold supersaturated vapour of water or alcohol in cloud chambers ( leaves a dense trail, less dense, and even fainter. 4. Radiation causes photographic film/plates to become exposed
2003 x x x 2008
Half-Lives of Radioisotopes Not explicitly mentioned in the syllabus but this is a crucial concept in nuclear chemistry time taken for half the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay
32 For example, phosphorus-32 ( ) has a half life of 14.29 days 15P (the most abundant form of phosphorus on earth is 31 non-radioactive phosphorus-31 ( P ) 15 32 32 15P 16S + e - ( -decay)
Identify ONE use of a named radioisotope in (A) industry AND (B) medicine INDUSTRY 1. Sodium-24, leak detector in pipes, short half life 2. Caesium-137, irradiation of food/medical supplies 3. Cobalt-60, thickness guage MEDICINE 1. Cobalt-60, cancer treatment 2. Technetium-99m, medical tracer 3. Fluorine-18, PET scans Summarise the Use, Benefits and Problems - know their chemical properties
Describe the way in which the industrial and medical radioisotopes are used and explain their use in terms of their chemical properties TYPES OF QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER 1. Type/s of radiation emitted: good or bad? 2. High or Low energy radiation? 3. Penetrating power? 4. How is the radiation detected? 5. What is the half life? Good or bad? 6. Is it easily disposed of? 7. What does the radioisotope target?
http://www.ansto.gov.au
2004 Many to choose from ONLY LEARN ONE for industry (and one for medical use) Know the correct mass number Know benefits and problems
2007 Name and describe properties for a radioisotope from (i) industry and (ii) from medicine Show link between the described properties and their use Describe the benefits and problems of their use on society / Provide a judgement PLAN YOUR ANSWER provide a logical progression to your answer; use correct scientific principles and ideas
2001
Concepts to Understand Key Terms: radioactivity, isotopes, radioisotope, fission, unstable nuclei, transuranic elements, ionising radiation Characteristics of three common radioactive emissions:,, How various forms of decay affect the mass number (A) and atomic number (Z) How the neutron / proton ratio correlates with nuclear stability and decay mode Monitoring radioactive emissions: Geiger-Müller counters, scintillation counters, photographic film and cloud chambers
Concepts to Understand continued How radioisotopes are produced commercially Transuranic elements and their production Applications of radioisotopes in industry AND medicine Learn how to assess benefits and problems associated with industrial and medicinal applications of radioisotopes.
Opal reactor ANSTO
Neutron guides to scientific equipment