Table 7.2. Summary of the magnetic anomalies scheduled for examination at the Long Tom site.

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 82 Figure 7.6. Magnetometer map of the central portion of the Long Tom site between 100W and 160W showing the location of trenches 124W and 145W excavated to examine magnetic anomalies in survey blocks F and G, and anomaly-free area in block O. Table 7.2. Summary of the magnetic anomalies scheduled for examination at the Long Tom site. Anomaly Anomaly Number Coordinates Type Number Coordinates Type C7 61N,70W dipolar K7 86N,206W monopolar C8 54N,70W monopolar K9 78N,206W monopolar F3 60N,125W dipolar K10 76N,206W monopolar F4 55N,124W monopolar K11 71N,206W dipolar F5 50N,124W monopolar K17 89N,214W monopolar G4 50N,145W monopolar K18 72N,215W monopolar G5 60N,146W monopolar L7 75N,191W monopolar H19 69N,179W monopolar M1 90N,160W monopolar I7 69N,191W monopolar M2 89N,165W monopolar I8 65N,191W monopolar M5 87N,171W monopolar I12 65N,194W monopolar M6 74N,170W monopolar I13 65N,196W monopolar

83 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site Figure 7.7. Magnetometer map of the west portion of the Long Tom site between trenches 160W and 220W showing the location of the seven trenches planned to examine 15 monopolar and one dipolar magnetic anomalies in survey blocks H, I, K, L, and M. survey blocks H and I. Surficially, this was at the edge of the abandoned meander channel at the south end of the site. Trenches 179W and 191W would bisect this linear magnetic anomaly. In addition to focusing on the placement of trenches to examine individual anomalies, the magnetometer results were also used to place two excavation blocks. One of these, the East Excavation Block, was at the intersection of trenches 90N and 171W in survey block M. The second, the West Excavation Block, was at the southern end of Trench 214W in survey block K. Both areas contained monopolar anomalies in the vicinity of others that would be examined in the trenches. The magnetometer maps also showed the location of recent ground disturbance, particularly the backhoe trenches that had been excavated during the 1985 test excavations. Three of these are discernable--one each in survey blocks F, I, and R. With the maps produced by the information generated by the magnetometer survey, the next phase could be undertaken. Backhoe trenching of the site deposits was guided by the planned placement of the trenches in which 23 identified monopolar and dipolar anomalies would be uncovered in 210 meters of trench (Table 7.2). Backhoe Trenching Test excavations at the Long Tom site employed a combination of hand-excavated test pits and backhoeexcavated trenches which uncovered a number of charcoal and fire-cracked rock-filled pits interpreted as fire pits and earth ovens (O'Neill 1987). To examine and confirm the identify of the dipolar and monopolar anomalies from the Long Tom site magnetometer survey, 210 meters of trench were excavated by backhoe (Figure 7.8). Based upon the frequency of features encountered during site testing, it was expected that approximately 40 features would be exposed by data recovery trenching.

80N L P R C S B Hwy. Station 354 A 40W The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 84 20W 90N Swale K J I M H East Block N O G F E D Q 20 18 17 16 15 14a,b 23 13 12 10 9 22 5 60W 8 7 1 2 3 West Block 80W 11 6 4 60N 220W 200W 160W 140W 120W 100W 50N 180W Abandoned Long Tom River Channel Figure 7.8. Location of magnetometer blocks (indicated by letters A through S), backhoe trenches, excavation units, features (indicated by numbers 1 through 23), and block excavations at the Long Tom site.

85 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site Table 7.3. Summary of data recovery backhoe trenches excavated at the Long Tom site. Reference Coordinates Orientation Length Features 70W 50-70N / 70W north - south 20 meters 1, 2, 3 124W 50-90N / 124W north - south 40 meters 4, 5 145W 50-70N / 145W north - south 20 meters 6, 7, 8 171W 70-90N / 171W north - south 20 meters 9, 10 179W 50-70N / 179W north - south 20 meters 11, 12 191W 60-80N / 191W north - south 20 meters 13, 14, 15 206W 60-90N / 206W north - south 30 meters 16, 17, 18 214W 70-90N / 214W north - south 20 meters 19, 20, 25* 90N 90N / 160-170W east - west 10 meters 21, 22, 24** 65N 65N / 190-200W east - west 10 meters 23 * feature 25 located in West Block Excavation ** feature 24 located in East Block Excavation Ten 60 cm-wide trenches were excavated, varying in length from 10 to 40 meters (Table 7.3). Testing had indicated that cultural features would be found between 80 and 165 cm below the ground surface. The trenches excavated to examine the magnetic anomalies believed to represent cultural features were dug to an average depth of 200 cm and placed to intercept 23 monopolar anomalies (Table 7.2). As prehistoric cultural features were encountered, close attention was paid to the fill which consisted of fire-cracked rock, charcoal, and baked earth. Visual inspection of the charcoal-laden fill was undertaken to identify plant remains for collection. Testing-phase backhoe trenching had uncovered two stone bowl mortar fragments (O'Neill 1987). Few stone tools were observed during data recovery trenching, though one notable exception was a cobble-size anvil stone discovered in the backdirt removed from Trench 214W. Immediately following their excavation, trench profiles were examined for evidence of cultural features which may have gone unnoticed during trenching. Such evidence would include soil discoloration, charcoal and bisque staining, and pieces of fire-cracked rock. The profiles were also searched for exposed artifacts--debitage, chipped stone tools, and cobble tools. Profiles were also examined for historic material, mainly metal. Bailing wire and nails were found to be most commonly associated with the dipolar magnetometer signatures. Eight north-south trenches and two east-west trenches were excavated. The north-south trenches were excavated first, beginning at the east end of the project and proceeding westward. The features were given consecutive numbers as they were exposed. Features 1-20 were found in the north-south trenches; features 21-23 in the east-west trenches; Feature 24 in the East Block Area; and Feature 25 in the West Block Area (Figure 7.8). After the trenching was complete and stratigraphic profiles of the trenches and features had been drawn, the backhoe was used to remove the overburden from above the features. This was designed to facilitate the handexcavation of the features. The area exposed was usually sufficient to comfortably provide space for a 2x2 meter excavation. In some instances, when the trench had bisected a feature and it appeared in both profiles, the overburden was mechanically removed from both sides of the trench. The backhoe was also used to clear the overburden from two planned block excavations lying adjacent to two of the trenches. The East Block included 24 m² along the northern perimeter of the excavation adjacent to Trench 90N/160-170W. The West Block, also 24 m², was situated at the west end of the site along Trench 70-90N/214W. Hand-Excavation Hand-excavation of cultural deposits at the Long Tom site focused on (a) exposing the cultural features that had been described in the backhoe trench profiles and (b) examining the interstitial areas of features in the East and West blocks. To examine the cultural features, a 2x2 m excavation unit was placed above a feature exposed in a trench profile. The size of the excavation, however, depended upon the size of the feature, with one or more of the 1x1 m quads of the unit being excavated. The excavation was of sufficient size to examine the exposed cultural feature. The horizontal coordinates of each unit, as well as the provenience of each feature, were determined by the grid which had been established over the entire site during the magnetometer survey. In practice, because the

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 86 Figure 7.9. Beginning hand-excavation at the south end of Trench 70W, exposing features 1-3. trenches had been staked out prior to their excavation, the unit coordinates were determined by measuring along the excavated trench. A datum stake was placed near the unit and the surface elevation established with an engineer's transit from the site datum. Test excavations at the Long Tom site had encountered neither small artifacts, such as beads, nor small-size faunal remains. Therefore, the sampling strategy at the Long Tom site consisted of screening 75% of the cultural fill of each 10 cm level through 1/4 inch hardware cloth, with the remaining 25% through 1/8 inch mesh. As test excavations had concluded that the cultural components at the site were stratigraphically separable, particular attention was paid to separate the material recovered from different strata. In general, however, Stratum 1 had been removed by backhoe prior to hand-excavation. Excavation first focused on identifying and exposing the features, then on the interior of the feature-- removing soil from within basins often defined by a rim of fire-baked earth. Soil samples were collected for subsequent water separation of macrobotanical remains. Charcoal and obvious macrobotanical remains were collected, as were stone tools and debitage. If fire-cracked rock was present, this was exposed, weighed, and discarded. Features were illustrated and photographed. Occasionally, the excavators discovered discrete lenses of crushed rock in the upper levels. Apparently piles of this material had been placed around the Oregon Country Fair-owned field at the time of the 1982 Grateful Dead concert to use as traction under the tires of cars which had gotten stuck (John Stamp, personal communication). Each of the ten trenches contained one or more cultural feature that was archaeologically examined. The following is a summary of these investigations by trench location. Trench 70W Trench 70W was a 20 meter-long trench located in survey block C in the east portion of the site. Begun at 50N in the densely vegetated strip along the south side of the hay field, the trench emerged from the woods into the

87 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 56N 55N 54N 53N 52N 51N 1 Feature 3 Feature 2 2 Feature 1 3 Figure 7.10. East profile of Trench 70W illustrating the relationship of features 1, 2, and 3 to one another and to the Stratum 2 / Stratum 3 interface.

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 88 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 55N 56N 57N 1 Feature 4 3 Figure 7.11. West profile of Trench 124W with Feature 4 at the strata 2/3 interface. 2 field. The south end of the trench was approximately 160 cm deep, with the north exceeding 200 cm in depth. Three clusters of fire-cracked rock were observed in the profiles of this trench, all near the south end of the trench and all in Stratum 2 near its interface with Stratum 3. Nearly 50 cm of overburden was removed from areas above these rock clusters. Systematic investigations included the excavation of 3.4 m² and screening of approximately 1.3m³ of fill (Figure 7.9). Three cultural features were identified, which included features 1, 2, and 3 (Figure 7.10). A concentration of fire-cracked rock was observed in both the east and west profiles at approximately 80 cm below the surface. The center of this 80 cm-long concentration--feature 1, was located at approximately 52N. To examine this a 1x2 m unit was placed perpendicular to and crossing the trench. Approximately 0.4 m³ was handexcavated and screened from the three 10 cm excavation levels, beginning approximately 50 cm below the original ground surface. In addition to exposing a concentration of fire-cracked rock in a basin-shaped pit, the excavations recovered nine pieces of debitage: seven obsidian and two CCS waste flakes. No formed tools or macrobotanical remains were collected from this feature which was contained within Stratum 2. The fire-cracked rock removed from this feature, located between 65-80 cm below the surface, weighed 21.1 kg. No identifiable macrobotanical remains were recovered. Feature 2 was a 120 cm-long concentration of fire-cracked rock observed on both the east and west profiles, though noticeably more prominent in the east profile. In the profile, rock was found between 65-90 cm below the surface. The center of the concentration was located at 53.6N. Feature 2 was examined through the excavation of a 1x1 m unit along the east edge of the trench at 54N. Approximately 0.5 m³ was systematically handexcavated and screened resulting in the recovery of 31 waste flakes: 20 obsidian, seven CCS, three basalt, and one of an "other" material type. No formed tools were recovered. While scattered pieces of bisque and charcoal were encountered during its excavation, no identifiable macrobotanical remains were collected. The feature, found at the base of Stratum 2, appears in the profile to have been excavated into Stratum 3 (Figure 7.9). Approximately 22.5 kg of fire-cracked rock was removed from the feature. Feature 3 was observed in both the east and west profiles of the trench as a concentration of fire-cracked rock approximately 50 cm long and 85 cm below the surface, with its center at approximately 55.5N. Beginning approximately 50 cm below the present ground surface, a 1x1 m unit was hand-excavated to a depth of approximately 90 cm. This excavation was situated at 55N. Approximately 0.4 m³ of cultural fill was removed and screened, exposing a scatter of fire-cracked rock and recovering 12 pieces of debitage: seven obsidian, four CCS, and one basalt. Neither formed tools nor macrobotanical remains were observed. Fire-cracked rock removed from the remains of the feature weighed 6.8 kg. The excavators report the discovery of large pieces of bisque amongst the fire-cracked rock. Also observed were roots and rodent burrows. It is possible that a basin of baked earth may have once existed at this location but that natural processes have led to its near erasure. Trench 124W Trench 124W was 40 meters long, began at 50N in survey block F, and continued to 90N through survey block O. The south end of the trench cut through a backhoe trench which had been excavated during the 1985 test excavations. Evidence of the 1985 trench was noticeable as a surface depression and was apparent in the profile.

89 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site 60N 61N 62N 2 Two units were placed along the west side of the trench to investigate clusters of fire-cracked rock which were apparent in the profile. Approximately 0.95 m³ was systematically removed from the 3 m² excavated at this location. Two features were subsequently identified-- features 4 and 5. Feature 4 was observed as a concentration of fire-cracked rock and charcoal along the west profile approximately 70 cm below the surface (Figure 7.11). The stain was approximately 150 cm long, with its center at 55.5N. Approximately 55 cm of overburden was removed by the backhoe from above Feature 4 and a 1x1 m unit placed over it at 55N. Approximately 0.35 m³ was removed and screened. This investigation resulted in the exposure of a 20 cm-deep basin-shaped pit at the interface of strata 2 and 3, and the recovery of 11 pieces of debitage: four obsidian and seven CCS. The bisquerimmed basin was lined with fire-cracked rock which weighed 24.8 kg. No formed tools or macrobotanical remains were collected. Feature 5 was an approximately 10 cm-thick lens of bisque, charcoal, and fire-cracked rock which undulated near the base of Stratum 3, within Freidel s Sediment Unit 4, at the bottom of the trench between 57.6N and 66.7N. At the south end, the 9.1 m-long feature was approximately 160 cm below the surface; at the north end it was 190 cm below the surface (Figure 7.12). A 1x2 m unit was placed above Feature 5 at 60N. The overburden from this feature, to a depth of 140 cm, was hand-excavated without screening. At this point, approximately 0.6 m³ of cultural fill was systematically removed from the three 10 cm levels excavated to examine Feature 5. Scattered pieces of fire-cracked rock, charcoal, and bisque were observed within the alluvial sediments. A composite charcoal sample collected from among the fire-cracked rock lens between 160-170 cm below the surface from Feature 5 returned a calibrated radiocarbon date of 9900 cal BP (8890±120 BP; Beta-20176; wood charcoal). One obsidian uniface was recovered from approximately 150 cm below the surface. Trench 145W 3 1 Feature 5 9905 cal BP Figure 7.12. Two meter segment of west profile of Trench 124W showing the location of Feature 5 in Stratum 3 near base of the trench. Trench 145W was 20 meters long and fully contained within survey block G. Three cultural features were identified in the profiles of this trench--features 6, 7, and 8 (Figure 7.13). A total of 3.5 m² were excavated along side the trench, from which approximately 2.1 m³ were removed and screened. Feature 6 was an 80 cm-long basin-shaped stain of charcoal, bisque, and fire-cracked rock found at a depth of approximately 75 cm below the surface. With its center at 58N, the stain was more prominent in the east profile than the west. Approximately 40 cm of overburden was mechanically removed from the east side of the trench above Feature 6. A 1x1 meter unit was excavated at 57.6N to a depth of 90 cm below the surface, from which approximately 0.5 m³ was removed and screened. Eighteen pieces of lithic debitage were recovered, including 13 obsidian and five CCS waste flakes. The excavation exposed a basin-shaped pit defined by bisque and charcoal, and containing less than one kilogram of fire-cracked rock--suggesting that it had been dismantled and the rock reused as a heating element elsewhere at the site. No macrobotanical remains were identified nor were any formed tools discovered during the excavation of the 1x1 unit at this location. 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 90 Figure 7.13. General view to north of the data recovery excavations at features 6, 7, and 8 in Trench 145W. Feature 7 was a 70 cm-long concentration of fire-cracked rock, bisque and charcoal flecking observed along the west profile of the trench, with its center approximately 60.4N. It was found at a depth of 95 cm below the surface. The backhoe was used to remove the upper 50 cm of a 1x1.5 m unit placed along the west side of the trench at 60N. Hand-excavation removed 1.25 m³ from which 70 pieces of lithic debitage were recovered--42 obsidian, 23 CCS, three basalt, and two waste flakes classified as "other" material. Also collected were two tools: a CCS endscraper and a utilized CCS flake. The excavation uncovered a concentration of fire-cracked rock contained within a 3 cm-thick rim of baked earth surrounding a 40 cm-deep and 130 cm-diameter pit. Approximately 73 kg of fire-cracked rock was removed from the interior of the feature. Feature 8 was a V-shaped pit filled with centimeter-size pieces of charcoal and bisque. Seen in the west profile, it extended from 50 to 115 cm below the surface, with its center at 61.8N. The overburden above Feature 8 was removed and a 1x1 m unit was placed at 61.5N. Hand-excavation systematically removed 0.6 m³ of fill and delimited a 30 cm-diameter pit which contained a dark granular soil thought to be worm casts. Screening of this fill recovered 17 waste flakes, including 10 obsidian, six CCS, and one basalt. Artifacts collected during the excavation of this feature included a small, narrow-necked obsidian projectile point and a utilized obsidian flake. Feature 8 contained little fire-cracked rock. Trench 171W Trench 171W was 20 meters long and bisected survey block M from north-to-south. Examination of the east and west profiles revealed the presence of two concentrations of fire-cracked rock, charcoal, and bisque which the backhoe had dug through. Feature 9 was located near the south end of the trench, and Feature 10 at the north end. Approximately 2.6 m³ were systematically removed from the 6 m² excavated at this location.

91 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 74N 75N 76N Feature 9 Figure 7.14. Two meter segment of the east profile of Trench 171W showing Feature 9 at the strata 2/3 interface. Feature 9 was a basin-shaped stain of bisque, charcoal, and fire-cracked rock observed in both the east and west profiles of the trench (Figure 7.14). With its center at 74.6N, Feature 9 was found at a depth of 85 cm below the surface. To examine this feature, the overburden was removed to a depth of approximately 40 cm, and two 1x2 m units were placed on opposite sides of the trench at 73.6N. Approximately 2 m³ were systematically removed and screened, from which 79 pieces of debitage were recovered--28 obsidian, 37 CCS, four basalt, and 10 waste flakes classified as "other" lithic material. This feature had a wellpreserved rim of baked earth measuring 3-4 cm thick and defining a pit with a diameter of approximately 180 cm. Though pebble-size pieces of fire-cracked rock were encountered during the excavation of this feature, few cobblesize pieces were uncovered, indicating that the heating element had been scavenged and reused elsewhere. Macrobotanical remains recovered during excavation included charred acorn and hazelnut fragments. No stone tools were collected from this location. Feature 10 was a concentration of fire-cracked rock with bisque and charcoal flecking located near the north end of the trench and found at a depth of 80 cm below the surface (Figure 7.15). With its center at 88.3N, it was 120 cm long and most apparent on the west profile. Approximately 20 cm of overburden was removed by backhoe and a 1x2 m unit placed on the west side of the trench at 87.4N. A shallow, rock-lined basin with a diameter of approximately 120 cm was exposed. Approximately.6 m³ was systematically hand-excavated and screened, from which 17 pieces of lithic debitage were recovered--seven obsidian, eight CCS, and two flakes of a material type classified as "other." The fire-cracked rock removed from Feature 10 weighed approximately 22 kg. Charred macrobotanical remains were recovered during the excavation of this feature and included camas bulbs fragments, Indian plum seeds, and Miner's lettuce seed. The unit was subsequently expanded to the east to become part of the East Block Excavation Area. 1 Trench 90N Trench 90N was a 10 meter-long backhoe trench excavated perpendicular to the north end of Trench 171W. Beginning at 160W, it ended one meter shy of joining with Trench 171W. Two cultural features were observed along the profiles of this trench--features 21 and 22. Feature 21 was a concentration of fire-cracked rock and charcoal observed in both the north and south profiles at a depth of approximately 80 cm below the surface. The center of this 90 cm-long feature was 165.1W. Investigation of Feature 21 was accomplished by the excavation of Unit D, one of the 2x2 m units of the East Block Excavation Area which paralleled the south side of the trench. Little remained of the feature beyond the south edge of the backhoe trench except a 1x.25 m cluster of fire-cracked rock. The rock was found to the inside of an approximately 3 cm-thick rim of baked earth, Feature 22 was a concentration of fire-cracked rock and charcoal extending approximately 1 meter westward from the east end of the trench. It was observed in both the north and south profiles at a depth of 80 cm below the surface. Approximately 40 cm of overburden was removed from above this feature, and a 1x2 m unit placed perpendicular to the east end of the trench. Subsequent systematic excavation of this feature removed approximately 1 m³ of fill, from which were recovered 42.3 kg of fire-cracked rock and five pieces of lithic 3 2

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 92 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 57N 58N 59N 60N 61N 1 Feature 11 2 3 Figure 7.15. Four meter segment of the west profile of Trench 179W between 57N and 61N showing Feature 11 at the interface of Stratum 2 and Stratum 3.

93 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site Feature 14A Feature 14B 191W 73.80N debitage--three obsidian and two CCS waste flakes. A utilized CCS flake was also collected. Though charcoal was common, no macrobotanical remains were identified or collected. Blackened earth and bisque was observedbeneath the lowest course of rock. The feature was at the interface of strata 2 and 3. The basin within which the rock was found was originally at least 100 cm in diameter. 193W Trench 179W Trench 179W was 20 meters long and paralleled the west edge of survey block H. Much of the trench lay within the dense vegetation at the south edge of the hay field. Examination of the trench profile revealed two concentrations of fire-cracked rock, charcoal, and bisque. Feature 11 was located at the midpoint of the trench, along the west side; Feature 12 was at the north end of the trench at 70N. Feature 11 was a basin-shaped pit of fire-cracked rock, charcoal, and bisque discovered at a depth of approximately 90 cm below the surface at the interface of strata 2 and 3 (Figure 7.15). Seen only in the west profile, it was 150 cm long, with its center at 59.65N. Following the removal of the upper 25 cm, a 1x2 m unit was placed along the west side of the trench at 58.7N. Another 1x1 m unit was later added to the northwest, forming an inverted L-shaped excavation block. Approximately 1.5 m³ were systematically excavated from Feature 11 with the recovery of 171 pieces of debitage-- 123 obsidian, 47 CCS, and 1 waste flake of an "other" lithic raw material. A proximal fragment of an obsidian biface was also recovered. The 236 pieces of fire-cracked rock removed from the exposed portions of the feature weighed nearly 82 kg. The basin from which they were removed was defined by a rim of baked earth with a diameter of approximately 2 m. Charred macrobotanical remains recovered during the excavation of this unit included fragments of a camas bulb and hazelnut shells. Feature 12 was a concentration of fire-cracked rock, bisque, and charcoal encountered at the north end of the trench approximately 75 cm below the surface. The feature extended across the entire 60 cm-wide backhoe trench and was present in both the east and west profiles at 69N. The backhoe removed approximately 60 cm of overburden from above the feature, and a 1x1 m unit was centered at the north end of the trench over the exposed feature. Approximately 0.3 m³ was systematically excavated from this unit and screened. Twenty-three pieces of lithic debitage were recovered from the screened fill of this unit--12 obsidian, five CCS, one basalt, and five waste flakes classified as "other" material. A utilized obsidian flake was also collected. A charred hazelnut fragment was recovered from within the fill of Feature 12. Trench 191W 192W Bisque Rims 72.80N 71.80N 191W Figure 7.16. Plan view of the overlapping oven features 14a and 14b along the west side of Trench 191W. Trench 191W was 20 meters long, began at 60N and ended in the hay field at 80N. The south half of the trench was in survey block I, the north half in block L. This trench was located in the vicinity of a 1985 test excavation backhoe trench--trench 8, from which two stone bowl fragments, a mano, and a hammerstone were recovered (O'Neill 1987:53). An earth oven was exposed in a test pit of the 1985 trench, and charcoal collected from this returned a date of 4730 cal BP (4190±100 BP; WSU-3466; wood charcoal). Trench 191W cut through this

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 94 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 81N 80N 79N Unexcavated 1 2 Feature 15 Figure 7.17. Two meter segment at the north end of Trench 191W showing oven Feature 15 in the east profile. 3 test pit, the remains of which were apparent in the profile. Three features were identified in the profiles of Trench 191W--features 13, 14, and 15. Examination of these was accomplished by the excavation of 7 m². Feature 13 was a concentration of fire-cracked rock and charcoal observed in both the east and west profiles at approximately 90 cm below the surface. In the east profile the stain measured approximately 100 cm; in the west nearly 200 cm. It was observed at the interface of strata 2 and 3. The center of the feature was at 66N. Above the feature in the west profile, was a wedge of tan sandy clay loam which was apparently the backfilled remnant of a previous excavation. However, the firecracked rock comprising the feature lay below this tan wedge and appeared undisturbed. Systematic examination of the feature included the excavation of a 1x2 m unit along the west side of the profile following the removal of approximately 30 cm of overburden. At a depth of 70 cm it became apparent that 1985 Trench 8 had cut through the feature and that excavation of a test pit had exposed but not removed the rock. Therefore, this re-examination was abandoned. Features 14a and 14b were recorded as an approximately 4 m-long lens of fire-cracked rock and charcoal flecking observed in both the east and west profiles of the trench at a depth of 75 cm below the surface. Beginning at 70N, pockets of fire-cracked sandstone were observed in the profile northward to 74N. This lens of thermally altered rock appeared to lie at the interface of strata 2 and 3. Three square meters were excavated along the west side of Trench 191W, forming an L-shaped excavation. Systematic excavation was begun approximately 40 cm below the surface following the mechanical removal of the overburden. Approximately 1.5 m³ of cultural fill was removed and screened. Two overlapping basin-shaped rims of baked earth, each containing charcoal and pieces of fire-cracked rock, were found in the excavation (Figure 7.16). Each had a diameter in excess of 130 cm and was found between 65-95 cm below the surface. A total of 49.3 kg of fire-cracked rock was removed from the partially excavated features; approximately 33.2 kg from Feature 14a, and 16.1 kg from Feature 14b. Field observations noted that the fire-cracked rock collected from Feature 14a was comprised primarily of small, angular pieces of basalt, whereas Feature 14b contained larger pieces of sandstone and a single rounded basalt cobble. The 34 pieces of lithic debitage recovered during the excavation of these features includes 18 obsidian, 14 CCS, one basalt, and one "other" material. Also recovered was a CCS biface fragment. Other than wood charcoal, no macrobotanical remains were identified in the excavation. Feature 15, located at the north end of Trench 191W, was a basin-shaped pit of charcoal and bisque with little fire-cracked rock observed in the east and west profiles of the trench approximately 90 cm below the surface, at the interface of strata 2 and 3 (Figure 7.17). The feature extended southward approximately 180 cm, with its center located at 79.8N. Following the removal of approximately 30 cm of overburden, a 1x2 meter unit was systematically excavated along the west edge of the trench to expose the feature. A cluster of fire-cracked rock, weighing nearly 10 kg, was found in the northwest corner of this unit. Beneath this rock cluster and to the east was a well-defined, bisque rimmed basin approximately 180 cm in diameter and 35 cm deep that had been bisected by the backhoe trench. Little fire-cracked rock was found within the basin. Excavators noted the presence of charred hazelnut fragments too fragile to collect, and one acorn fragment which was collected. At the bottom of the feature was charcoal containing pin-size holes which the excavators thought might represent wood-borers--suggesting the use of dead branches as fuel for this oven. Eighteen pieces of lithic debitage were collected from the 1.2 m³ of fill

95 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site 79N 78N 77N 1 20 systematically excavated from in and around this feature--12 obsidian, five CCS, and one basalt. Also recovered was a CCS uniface. Trench 65N Trench 65N was an east-west trench 10 meters long, lying perpendicular to Trench 191W in survey block I and extending westward to 200W. One feature, Feature 23, was recorded during the profiling of this trench. Feature 23, found at 95 cm below the surface, was a basin-shaped pit of fire-cracked rock and charcoal approximately 160 cm long observable in both the north and south trench profiles, and thought to have been as thick as 50 cm. Its center was 183.4W. The backhoe removed approximately 40 cm of overburden from the north side of the trench above this feature to accommodate a 1x2 m unit. A basalt core was discovered in the back dirt and, given the texture and color of soil adhering to the artifact, was assumed to have originated from Stratum 2, the surface from which the basin was excavated. Approximately 0.9 m³ of fill was hand-excavated and screened, from which were recovered two obsidian biface fragments, a CCS uniface, and 189 pieces of lithic debitage--97 obsidian, 85 CCS, three basalt, and 4 waste flakes of "other" material. Many of these waste flakes were very small and their recovery attests to the thorough screening of the deposits by the excavators of this feature. Cobble- and pebble-size pieces of fire-cracked rock weighing 28.4 kg were removed from within the baked earth rim of Feature 23, which had a diameter of 130 cm. Also recovered from within the feature were charred fragments of hazelnut shell and camas bulbs. Trench 206W Feature 17 Figure 7.18. Two meter segment of Trench 206W showing oven Feature 17 in the east profile at the strata 2/3 interface. Trench 206W was 30 meters long, bisecting survey blocks J and K. Examination of the trench profiles revealed three features--16, 17, and 18. Also discovered was a CCS endscraper. This tool was recovered from 85 cm below the surface at 82.2N Feature 16 was an approximately 7 meter-long lens of fire-cracked rock with flecks of charcoal and bisque found between 55 and 85 cm below the surface, resting on Stratum 3. It was observed in both the east and west profiles beginning at 68N and extending to 75N. To examine this feature, the backhoe removed the upper 20 cm of overburden along the east side of the trench. A 1x2 meter unit placed at 70N discovered disturbed soil, possibly from a previous test pit excavation. Abandoning this unit, excavations were moved two meters north where a second 1x2 meter unit was placed at 72N. Hand-excavation examined the deposits between 20 and 90 cm below the present ground surface. Systematic excavation of approximately 1.2 m³ of cultural fill at this location discovered a concentration of fire-cracked rock, charcoal and bisque covering the entire excavation unit between 50 and 70 cm below the surface. The excavators found no evidence of a prepared basin. Recovered from the fill were two CCS biface fragments, an obsidian projectile point, and 66 pieces of lithic debitage--55 obsidian, 7 CCS, two basalt, and two waste flakes of "other" material. Approximately 51.3 kg of fire-cracked rock were removed from this feature. Macrobotanical remains collected from this feature included a single charred camas bulb and a seed identified as Indian plum. 3 2 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 96 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 89N 88N 87N 1 2 3 Feature 17 was a basin-shaped pit of fire-cracked rock, charcoal and bisque most noticeable in the east profile at 77.6N (Figure 7.18). The bottom of the pit was approximately 70 cm below the present ground surface. A thin scatter of rock extended approximately 3 m northward, away from the pit in both profiles, to 81.4N. A CCS endscraper was discovered in Stratum 2 approximately 85 cm below the surface at 82.2N. The overburden above Feature 17 was removed by backhoe to a depth of 20 cm, and hand-excavation was performed at 77N in a 1x2 m unit to a depth of 70 cm. A section of a one meter-diameter basin circumscribed by a baked earth rim was uncovered and found to have been excavated from Stratum 2 into the top of Stratum 3. Feature 17 contained firecracked rock and charcoal. Fire-cracked rock was also found to the east, beyond the bisque rim. The rock included angular pieces of sandstone and basalt cobbles. Thirty-two pieces of lithic debitage were recovered from the 1 m³ of fill--20 obsidian, seven CCS, one basalt, and 4 waste flakes of "other" material. No formed tools nor macrobotanical remains were recovered during the excavation of this feature. Feature 18 was a basin-shaped pit of fire-cracked rock, heavy charcoal staining, and some bisque observed in both the east and west profiles near the north end of the trench (Figure 7.19). With its center at 87.7N, it was 140 cm long and found 75 cm below the surface near the interface of strata 2 and 3. A 1x2 meter excavation unit was placed above this feature at 87N. Hand-excavation began approximately 30 cm below the surface; the overburden having been removed by backhoe. This investigation found the remains of an approximately 110 cm-diameter basin demarcated by a 2 cm-wide rim of baked earth. Within this basin was a concentration of fire-cracked rock and charcoal. When removed, the fire-cracked rock was found to weigh approximately 11.3 kg. Also recovered from the approximately.6 m³ of the screened fill were a utilized basalt flake and 35 pieces of lithic debitage--16 obsidian, 13 CCS, five basalt, and one flake of "other" material. No macrobotanical remains were observed or collected from Feature 18. Trench 214W Feature 18 Figure 7.19. Two meter segment of the east profile of Trench206W showing oven Feature 18 at the strata 2/3 interface. Trench 214W was 20 meters long and contained within survey block K. While monitoring the excavation of this trench an anvil stone was observed and collected from the backdirt above Feature 19, one of the two features identified during the profiling of this trench. The other was Feature 20. A scatter of fire-cracked rock was observed between 78.7N and 80N at a depth of 65 cm below the surface but was determined to be too thin to classify as a feature. Feature 19 was a 140 cm-long lens of fire-cracked rock, charcoal and bisque observed at a depth of 125 cm below the surface. Its center was 72.8N. Excavation of this feature was part of the 24 m² West Block Excavation Area described below. Feature 20 was a concentration of fire-cracked rock with bisque and charcoal flecking observed in the east and west profiles at the north end of the trench. Found at a depth of 50 cm below the surface, its center was 88.7N. A 1x1 m unit was excavated on the west side of the trench above this feature at 88N. The fill from each of the five 10 cm levels excavated at this feature was screened through 1/4 inch mesh, with the recovery of an obsidian drill fragment, a CCS utilized flake, and 25 pieces of lithic debitage--eight obsidian, 13 CCS, one basalt, and three flakes

97 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site Tr 90N A C D B Feature 22 Feature 21 Feature 10 E F Feature 24 Tr 171W 0 1 2 meters East Excavation Block Figure 7.20. East Excavation Block at the intersection of trenches 171W and 90N. Figure 7.21. Excavations in progress in the East Excavation Block; view to southeast. Trench 90N is along the left side of photo.

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 98 Figure 7.22. Feature 10, a cluster of fire-cracked rock in Unit A of the East Excavation Block. classified as "other" lithic material. A 50 cm-diameter cluster of fire-cracked rock was found between 40 and 50 cm below the surface, at the interface of strata 2 and 3. No macrobotanical remains were collected. East Excavation Block The East Excavation Block was a 24 m² area at the intersection of trenches 171W and 90N in survey block M (Figure 7.20). The overburden above the six 2x2 m units, A-F, was removed by backhoe to a depth of 30-40 cm, at which point the units were hand-excavated (Figure 7.21). Vertical control of the excavation of these units was maintained by establishing a single datum from which the elevations of each unit datum were shot by transit. The cultural fill was screened through 1/4 inch mesh with sample screening of as much as 25% of the fill through 1/8 inch mesh. Approximately 11 m³ were hand-excavated and screened (Table 7.4). Investigations in the East Excavation Block focused on delineating the fire-cracked rock concentrations observed in the trench profiles--features 10, 21, and 22, as well as the monopolar anomaly (Feature 24) which the magnetometer survey map indicated would be present. The interstitial area between the features was examined for evidence of non-rock features, tools, and lithic debris that might indicate work areas beyond the immediate confines of the earth ovens. In general, the features were noted to occur within Stratum 2 at its interface with Stratum 3. Fire-cracked rock, bisque, and charcoal flecking was generally observed at a depth of 60-70 cm below the surface. Features 10 (Figure 7.22) and 22 contained quantities of fire-cracked rock. It is assumed that Feature 21, only a portion of which remained following the backhoe trench excavation, also contained much fire-cracked rock. Feature 24, was a 2 meter-diameter basin circumscribed by a rim of baked earth (Figure 7.23). Within this approximately 30 cm-deep basin were pebble- and cobble-size pieces of fire-cracked rock weighing a relatively sparse 27 kg. It is quite likely that this earth oven was dismantled and the rock re-used elsewhere--perhaps in the ovens which were found to contain relatively more rock, such as features 10, 21 and 22. Charcoal was common in this feature, and a sample of wood charcoal collected from Quad A at a depth of 80-90 cm below the surface was submitted for radiocarbon assay. It returned a date of 4100 cal BP (3780±110 BP; Beta 19983; wood charcoal), a

99 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site Figure 7.23. Feature 24 in Unit F of the East Excavation Block. Note the shallow basin within which are a few small fragments of fire-cracked rock. Table 7.4. Distribution of lithic debitage by excavation unit and 10 cm excavation level in the East Block at the Long Tom site. The 1/4" and 1/8" screen fractions have been combined, and totals include all material types-- obsidian, CCS, basalt, and "other." Levels 7 and 8 (99.50-99.30) were where features 10, 22, and 24 first appear. 2x2 meter Excavation Units 10 cm A B C D E F Levels n density n density n density n density n density n density 4 6 24 - - 7 18 3 8-5 5 20 0 0 1 3 6 15 12 30 15 38 6 7 28 0 0 0 0 6 15 7 18 25 63 7 4 16 37 93 12 30 7 18 14 35 23 58 8 6 24 0 0 23 58 8 20 8 20 22 55 9 1 4 /// /// /// 9 23 0 0 10 /// /// /// /// /// 0 0 Total 29 37 36 34 53 85 key: (-) removed unscreened; (///) unexcavated; n (number of waste flakes); density (items/m³).

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 100 Figure 7.24. General view to east of the West Excavation Block along the north edge of the Long Tom River meander channel. Brushing prior to construction made this channel more apparent. Inclement weather prompted raising plastic sheeting to protect the excavations from the rain. date similar to the other Middle Holocene dates determined on charcoal collected during the previous testing phases at the site. Macrobotanical remains recovered from Feature 24 included charred fragments of camas, hazelnut shell, and Indian plum seed. Charred camas, Indian plum, and Miner's lettuce seed were also recovered to the west from Feature 10. Neither lithic debitage nor tools were common in the East Block Excavation, and the density of waste flakes never rose above 100 items/m³ in a single 10 cm excavation level (Table 7.4). The six chipped stone tools recovered from this area are all scraping implements--three unifacial scrapers and three utilized flakes with obtuse edges. Cobble tools collected from this area include a pestle fragment, three cobble-size anvil stones, and three angular pieces of sandstone, each containing a shallow depression on a face. Excavations at this location failed to uncover non-rock features. West Excavation Block The West Excavation Block lay immediately north of the Long Tom River meander channel that bordered the south side of the site (Figure 7.24). It was a 24 m² area within which data recovery excavations explored the southernmost six meters of Trench 214W (Figure 7.25). Six 2x2 m units, G-L, were used to examine Feature 19 and the surrounding area which the magnetometer survey had indicated contained monopolar anomalies (Figure 7.26). The backhoe removed the overburden from I and J, the middle two units--above Feature 19; hand-excavation removed the overburden at the south end of the trench, in units K and L. While shoveling away the overburden in units G and H an obsidian biface was discovered in Stratum 1, and overburden removal was suspended here in favor of systematic excavation. Of the two northern units, Unit H was excavated from the surface; systematic excavations

101 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site Artifact Key Tr 214W pp bi sc uf co pes ham anv ch ps m projectile point biface scraper utilized flake core pestle hammerstone anvil chopper pitted stone manuport G bi H bi bi uf pp uf sc sc sc pp uf uf uf bi pes ps sc 76N Feature 25 pes uf I sc ham uf uf m J co co m pes ch uf uf m 74N pes anv uf Feature 19 uf bi ch K sc co sc co bi co sd L pp bi uf sc ch pp uf 72N 0 1 2 meters uf co 216W sc co uf 214W bi uf bi ch uf uf 70N 212W West Excavation Block Figure 7.25. The West Excavation Block showing the location of features 19 and 25. Also shown are the locations of many recovered artifacts, those recovered in situ (bold) and those from screening.

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 102 Figure 7.26. View to southeast of work in progress in the West Excavation Block. Excavators in the foreground are standing in the bottom of Trench 214W which cut through Feature 19. Table 7.5. Distribution of lithic debitage by excavation unit and 10 cm excavation level in the West Block at the Long Tom site. The 1/4" and 1/8" screen fractions have been combined, and totals include all material types-- obsidian, CCS, basalt, and "other." Stratum 1 was found to a depth of approximately 50 cm below the surface in units G and H, and the material associated with this stratum is assigned to the Late Holocene upper component. 2x2 meter Excavation Units 10 cm G H I J K L Levels n density n density n density n density n density n density Stratum 1 1-4 28 - - - - - - - - 2-7 49 - - - - - - - - 3 7 70 9 54 - - - - - - - - 4 6 48 20 80 - - - - - - - - 5 9 72 6 18 - - - - - - 2 8 Stratum 2 6 5 35 7 18-9 23 7 49 8 20 7 0 0 30 75-24 60 12 36 17 43 8 5 25 14 35 9 27 20 50 7 21 18 45 9 2 10 26 65 10 30 17 43 16 48 16 40 10 4 20 20 50 5 25 17 43 11 33 5 13 11 2 10 14 35 7 35 8 20 1 3 8 20 12 1 5 4 10 7 35 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 /// 0 0 /// /// /// Total 41 161 38 95 54 74 key: (-) removed unscreened; (///) unexcavated; n (number of waste flakes); density (items/m³).

103 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site Figure 7.27. Density of lithic debitage by 10 cm level in the six West Excavation Block units. The overburden containing the Upper Component was removed in all but units G and H. began in Unit G approximately 20 cm below the surface (Table 7.5). A total of 15 m³ was removed and screened; 25% of the fill (usually Quad A) was screened through 1/8 inch mesh with the remaining 75% through 1/4 inch mesh. The backhoe trench effectively removed the east half of units G, I, and K. As with the East Excavation Block, vertical control was established with a single datum from which each unit's datum was calibrated.

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 104 Figure 7.28. Excavated remains of Feature 19 exposed at a depth of 120 cm. Shown are small pieces of fire-cracked rock with an elongated concentration of baked earth. Stratum 1 was found to a depth of approximately 50 cm in units G and H. Within these upper deposits were waste flakes and chipped stone tools. Among the tools recovered were small obsidian and CCS projectile points, obsidian biface fragments, and two CCS utilized flakes. The density of lithic debitage was no greater than 80 flakes/m³ in a single 10 cm level (Figure 7.27). Little firecracked rock was encountered during the excavation of the upper deposits in these units and no evidence of cultural features was found in Stratum 1. Beyond 50 cm below the current ground surface Stratum 2 contained lithic debitage, chipped stone and ground stone tools. Among the tools recovered from the west block area were broad-necked projectile points, biface fragments, endscrapers, utilized flakes, CCS and obsidian cores, pestles, an anvil, basalt chopper/cores, and a hammerstone. Unmodified pieces of CCS tool stone were also recovered from the lower deposits. Two cultural features were exposed in the excavations at the West Block Area. Feature 19, which was observed in the Trench 214W profile, was found to be a heavily fired area approximately 350 cm long and at least 40 cm wide--its eastern portion was removed by the 60 cm-wide backhoe trench. Chunks of bisque were observed on the east side of the trench opposite the south end of the feature. Found in units G, I and K, the bisque, charcoal, and sparse fire-cracked rock comprising this feature was first noted at approximately 110 cm below the surface and extended to a depth of approximately 130 cm as a shallow basin. The elongated shape of this feature (Figure 7.28) is unusual among the cultural features encountered at the Long Tom site and suggests that it may have served another purpose than as a camas oven, possibly as a warming fire or an area for drying berries. While fire-cracked rock was not common in Feature 19, bisque and charcoal were abundant. A wood charcoal sample collected from within Feature 19 at 110 cm below the surface in Unit I returned a radiocarbon date of 4600 cal BP (4120±70 BP; Beta 19984; wood charcoal). Macrobotanical remains were recovered during excavations above and within Feature 19. These include charred fragments of camas bulbs, hazelnut and acorns. The second feature uncovered in the West Block was Feature 25, a 30 cm-wide, oval-shaped pit found at the west edge of Unit I and approximately 60 cm west of Feature 19. Seen in the west profile of this unit, its walls were fire-reddened and slightly inward sloping (Figure 7.29). A 50x50 cm extension was excavated at the northwest corner of Unit I to expose this feature. It was found to extend from approximately 80 cm to 120 cm below the surface. No artifacts or fire-cracked rock were associated with this pit, which was interpreted to be a possible post mold or pit.

105 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site Figure 7.29. Feature 25, possible post mold or pit, in the west profile of Unit G. In the West Block Excavation, fire-cracked rock was most common between 80 and 100 cm below the surface in units H and J, east of Feature 19. In Unit H the recovered pebble- and cobble- size pieces weighed a total of 6.3 kg; in Unit J, less than 2 kg. Tools were also more common along the east side of the block, particularly in Unit H, where they included a projectile point, three bifaces, two unifaces, nine utilized flakes, a core/chopper, two pestles, a hammerstone, and a piece of unmodified tool stone. Excavation Summary Data recovery excavations at the Long Tom site identified cultural features exposed in backhoe trenches, the excavation of which was guided by magnetometer survey data. Approximately 76 m² were systematically examined, including (a) the 37.5 m² in isolated units used to examine individual features exposed in the trenches; (b) the 24 m² of the East Excavation Block of which 22 m² was hand-excavated; and (c) the 24 m² of the West Excavation Block of which 18 m² was hand-excavated. Approximately 42.9 m³ of cultural deposits were handexcavated and screened. Table 7.6 provides a summary of the data recovery efforts at the Long Tom site. The cultural features exposed in the trenches and block excavations were primarily concentrations of firecracked rock found within basin-shaped pits containing charcoal and baked earth. These features are morphologically similar to the ethnographically described earth ovens used by the Kalapuyans and others of the Pacific Northwest to bake roots such as camas. Fragments of charred camas bulbs were discovered in the cultural fill excavated from these oven features (see Chapter 10 of this volume). Formed tools and lithic debitage were not commonly found in or around the excavated features. Few tools were found in the East Block, which examined the area in the vicinity of four earth-oven/fire-cracked rock features. Investigations conducted at the West Block, however, discovered a larger and more varied artifact assemblage comprised of chipped and ground stone tools which included such functional types as projectile points, knives, scrapers, used flakes, cores, pestles, chopper/cores, a hammerstone and anvil. Furthermore, the focal cultural feature at this location, Feature 19, was morphologically unique among the Long Tom site features.

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 106 Table 7.6. Summary of Long Tom site data recovery excavation volume and recovery. Volume Botanical. FCR Trench Features Unit (m³) Tools Debitage Remains (kg) 70W 1 1x2 0.4-9 - 21.2 2 1x1 0.5-31 - 22.5 3 1x1 0.4-12 - 6.8 124W 4 1x1 0.35-11 - 24.8 5 1x2 0.6 1 - - 3.0 145W 6 1x1 0.5-18 - nr 7 1x1.5 1.25 2 70-73.0 8 1x1 0.6 2 17 - <1.0 171W 9 2x2 2.0-79 + <1.0 10 1x2 0.6-17 + 22.0 179W 11 1x2 1.5 1 171 + 82.0 12 1x1 0.3 1 23 + nr 191 13* 1x2 14a/b 1x2, 1x1 1.5 1 34-49.3 15 1x2 1.2 1 18 + 10.0 206W 16 1x2 1.2 3 66 + 51.3 17 1x2 1.0-32 - nr 18 1x2 0.6-35 - 11.3 214W 20 1x1 0.5 2 25 - nr 65N 23 1x2 0.9 3 189 + 28.4 90N 22 1x2 1.0 1 5-42.3 East Block 21, 24 22 m² 11.0 13 274 + West Block 19,25 18 m² 15.0 64 463 + * Feature 13 was previously investigated and its excavation was subsequently abandoned. nr = not recorded; + = present; - = absent Site Dating and Cultural Components The deposits at the Long Tom site contain charcoal found in contexts directly associated with cultural activity. Samples of this charcoal were submitted for radiocarbon assay. The deposits also contain flakes and tools of obsidian, specimens of which were submitted for sourcing and hydration studies. Examination of the stratigraphic position of the cultural deposits, coupled with the results obtained by their dating has led to an understanding of the sequence of site occupation. This sequence can be divided into analytic components. This section presents the results of radiocarbon analysis and obsidian hydration used to date the Long Tom site deposits and to separate these deposits into their analytic components. Radiocarbon Dating The Long Tom site contained stratified cultural deposits within which charcoal was found as concentrations in fire-cracked rock features and as ubiquitous flecks and chunks lying in the soil matrix beyond the features. The stratigraphic sequence, though often subtle, was distinguishable, and stratigraphic associations could be assigned to the excavated features and the recovered material remains. The cultural deposits at the Long Tom site were dated by eight radiocarbon assays--five samples submitted from the testing phase and three from data recovery investigations (Table 7.7). All of the samples were

107 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site 3780 Uncalibrated Radiocarbon Dates 3880 4110 4120 4190 4230 4400 3800 4000 4200 4400 4600 4800 5000 5200 5400 Calibrated Years BP Figure 7.30. Ranges of the dendrocalibrated middle Holocene ages from the Long Tom site. Shaded bar defines overlaps of dates, showing that the site was probably occupied shortly before 4400 years ago. Table 7.7. Radiocarbon determinations on Long Tom site charcoal samples. Included are three dates from the data recovery investigations as well as five from site testing. Specimen Laboratory Depth Uncalibrated Calibrated 14 C Age BP Number Number (bs) Strat 14 C Age BP Range and Intercepts at 2 sigma* Data Recovery Results FA /9 Beta-19983 85 2 3780±110 4440 (4140, 4105, 4095) 3835 IC /11 Beta-19984 110 2 4120±70 4835 (4800, 4775, 4605, 4595, 4570) 4420 F5 /17 Beta-20176 165 3 8890±120 10,040 (9905) 9535 Testing Results 1980-7 Beta-2452 95 2 3880±90 4525 (4340, 4335, 4285) 3990 1980-8 Beta-2453 160 2 4110±70 4835 (4785, 4780, 4565) 4415 1985-1 WSU-3464 90 2 4400±75 5290 (4975, 4925, 4880) 4835 1985-5 WSU-3465 75 2 4230±100 5025 (4830) 4450 1985-8 WSU-3466 80-100 2 4190±100 4975 (4820, 4750, 4725, 4665, 4655) 4420 Calibration computed using Radiocarbon Calibration Program Rev. 3.0.3, Quaternary Isotope Lab, University of Washington.

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 108 Table 7.8. Geochemical sources and hydration values of Long Tom site obsidian specimens. Specimen Hydration Number Geochemical Source Artifact Class Mean F5B/15-1 Inman Creek Group A scraper 1.6 East Block FA/8-1 Inman Creek Group A debitage NVB FA/8-2 Obsidian Cliffs debitage 3.2 FA/8-3 Obsidian Cliffs debitage 1.8 West Block IA/11-1 Obsidian Cliffs debitage 2.6 IA/11-2 Newberry Volcano debitage 1.9 IA/11-3 Inman Creek Group A debitage 1.8 Key: (NVB) no visible [hydration] band derived from charcoal demonstrably associated with cultural features. The five samples submitted from the testing phases at the site--all from Stratum 2 contexts, returned dendrocalibrated Middle Holocene ages between 4925 BP and 4335 BP. Their feature contexts have been described elsewhere (O'Neill 1987). Three charcoal samples collected during data recovery investigations were submitted for radiocarbon assay--two from features identified in Stratum 2 (Freidel s Soil Unit III) and one from a feature in Stratum 3 (Soil Unit IV) (Table 7.7). Sample FA/9 was wood charcoal collected from Feature 24, an earth oven exposed in excavations in the East Block. It returned a date of 3780±110 BP, dendrocalibrated to 4105 BP. Sample IC/11, also wood charcoal, was collected from the base of the excavation of Feature 19, an elongated fire-cracked rock and burned earth feature associated with chipped and ground stone tools in the West Block. This sample returned a radiocarbon date of 4120±70 BP, dendrocalibrated to 4605 BP. Both of these specimens were recovered from Stratum 2 contexts, and are consistent with the other radiocarbon dates obtained from charcoal samples submitted from the Long Tom site and described in Table 7.7. The third data recovery wood charcoal sample submitted for radiocarbon analysis was recovered from Feature 5, found in Stratum 3 deposits near the bottom of Trench 124W. Sample F5/17 returned a date of 8890±120 BP, dendrocalibrated to 9905 BP. The seven Middle Holocene dendrocalibrated dates, along with their minimum and maximum ranges at two sigma, fall between 5290 BP and 3835 BP, a span of some 1455 years. However, as may be observed in Figure 7.30, six of these share a narrow critical range centered about 4400 cal BP. The single Early Holocene date from the Long Tom site was, at the time of its determination, the oldest radiocarbon date in the Long Tom River drainage. Equally ancient, and older, dates were subsequently returned on charcoal collected from cultural contexts a short distance east of the Long Tom site (Peterson 1989). Cultural remains at the Veneta Lagoon site were, like those from the Long Tom site, very sparse. These nearby dates (9130±200, 9485±90 and 9660±140 uncalibrated 14 C ages BP), and their cultural association do tend to confirm the antiquity of the earliest Long Tom site date. Furthermore, the stratigraphic association of the Long Tom date, in Stratigraphic Unit IV, is consistent with those discovered elsewhere in the drainage (Freidel et al. 1989; see also Chapter 5 of this volume). No cultural features or concentrations of charcoal were noted in Stratum 1. Therefore, this stratum, and the cultural material recovered from it, remain radiometrically undated. Obsidian Hydration Seven Long Tom site obsidian specimens were submitted for sourcing and hydration studies (Appendix C). These seven include a scraper from the 9900 year-old Feature 5 found in Stratum 3, and six pieces of

109 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site Table 7.9. Summary of the three Long Tom site components. Component Geomorphic Association Age 1 Stratum 1 Late Holocene 2 Stratum 2 and Stratum 3 interface Middle Holocene; ca 4400 BP 3 Stratum 3 Early Holocene; 9905 BP debitage--three each from the investigations of Stratum 2 features in the West and East Excavation blocks (Table 7.8). Trace element analysis determined that three sources were represented in the Long Tom site sample. Three specimens were identified as belonging to the locally available Inman Creek Group A source; three to the Obsidian Cliffs source; and one to the central Oregon Newberry Volcano source. According to Skinner (1983), nodules of Obsidian Cliffs obsidian have been redeposited and are found in the McKenzie and Willamette Rivers gravels. The results of the hydration analysis are inconclusive, given the small sample size for each source represented and the widely disparate hydration values obtained. Of the three specimens identified to the Inman Creek source, one has no visible hydration band and the other two have readings of 1.6 and 1.8. Using a hydration rate of 2.02 microns²/1000 years (see Chapter 9), these yield hydration ages of 1270 BP and 1600 BP, far younger than the ca 8900 BP and 4000 BP radiocarbon ages associated with these obsidian specimens. The three Obsidian Cliffs specimens, all believed to represent roughly contemporaneous Stratum 2 occupations 4200 to 4900 years ago, have mean hydration values of 1.8 to 3.2 microns (7.10). Using a hydration rate of 4 microns²/1000 years (Ellis 1996:12.15; see also Chapter 9 of this volume) these three mean hydration values are converted to hydration ages of 810 BP, 1690 BP, and 2560 BP--all much younger than the 4000+BP radiocarbon dates. The Long Tom site obsidian hydration data did little to confirm or refute the radiocarbon dating of the site. What it does suggest, however, is the possibility that the site contents, particularly the lithic debris--flakes and chipped stone tools found in the soil matrix, were more greatly disturbed than was noticeable in the excavations. While rodent burrows were recorded in features because of the dramatic change in soil color that accompanied this natural disturbance, burrows were not commonly noted beyond the features. Bioturbation from such sources as rodents, earthworms, and tree roots probably all played a part in moving individual obsidian artifacts. Cultural Components Test excavations at the Long Tom site determined the presence of two and possibly three components (Table 7.9). These included a thin lithic scatter in the upper soil stratum and a more intense occupation in Stratum 2 characterized as containing earth oven features. An older, deeper component was suggested by the presence of a thin scatter of fire-cracked rock and lithic debitage found in widely scattered auger probes. Data recovery investigations confirmed the presence of each of these components and provided a radiometric value for the earliest occupation of the site. Each of the three components identified at the Long Tom site is associated with a separate stratigraphic unit. Data recovery investigations at the Long Tom site focused primarily on exposing oven features and other subsurface anomalies that were identified by the magnetometer survey and in the backhoe trench profiles. Test excavations had not encountered cultural features in the upper deposits, and the lithic element of this component was sparse. Because of this focus on cultural features and the mechanical removal of the Stratum 1 overburden above features discovered in Stratum 2, little work was undertaken during data recovery to examine the low density cultural materials in this upper soil layer. However, excavations in the northern units at the West Block, which included systematic excavation and screening of soil from Stratum 1, recorded materials associated with Component 1. The Long Tom site contains evidence of this locality's occupation during the Early, Middle, and Late Holocene. Based on stratigraphy, radiocarbon data, and typological cross-dating of diagnostic artifacts, each of the three components can be assigned to one of the three divisions of the Holocene.

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 110 Component 1 Component 1 is a sparse assemblage of chipped stone tools and lithic debitage found to a depth of approximately 50 cm in Stratum 1. The density of lithic debitage is no greater than 80 flakes/m³ (Figure 7.28). While occasional pieces of fire-cracked rock are found in Stratum 1, no concentration of this material has been found to indicate intact ovens or hearths associated with Component 1. The artifact assemblage includes small obsidian narrow-necked and small, triangular stemless projectile points which are typologically similar to specimens recovered from radiometrically dated recent Late Holocene contexts at other nearby Long Tom River drainage sites- -including the Chalker site. Historic materials uncovered during the course of the data recovery investigations included square nails, concrete pieces, gravel, and baling wire. Component 2 Archaeological examination of the Long Tom site discovered that the most intensive occupation of this locality is represented by the cultural earth oven features and artifactual remains found in Stratum 2 (Stratigraphic Unit III). Based on the results of the magnetometer survey and excavation conducted to confirm the magnetic anomalies, it is estimated that the Long Tom site contains over 100 features. Excavation found these to occur within Stratum 2 and at the interface of Stratum 3. In addition to the earth ovens and fire pits which were apparent in the magnetometer data, Component 2 deposits were also found to contain post molds, and possible cache pits. Charcoal samples recovered from the earth ovens have provided a suite of radiocarbon dates with a range of intercepts suggesting intermittent use of the site area over an approximately 1000 year period (~5000 through 4000 BP). The majority of these, however, cluster along a narrower critical range of approximately 4400 cal BP (Figure 7.30). Archaeological excavations coupled with the geomorphic investigations confirm that this component contains localized activity zones on a dynamic landform. Tools and lithic debitage are generally thinly scattered throughout the deposits. Excavations conducted in the West Block, where lithic debris was densest, showed that the lithic debris density did not generally exceed 65 flakes/m³ (Figure 7.27). Formed tools, including chipped stone and ground stone implements, are not evenly distributed across the site. Investigations at the East Block, which lay over 40 meters north of the abandoned Long Tom meander channel, discovered few tools among the earth ovens. On the other hand, excavations at the West Block, which lay adjacent to the meander channel, recovered relatively greater numbers of tools including projectile points, bifaces, scrapers, utilized flakes, pestles, and an anvil. Test excavations of areas closer to the meander channel had similar results, with stone bowl mortar fragments being recovered. Component 3 The Early Holocene is represented by the material remains associated with Feature 5, found at approximately 160 cm below the present ground surface in Stratum 3. Only a single artifact was recovered from among the scattered fire-cracked rock, bisque, and charcoal. This was a unifacially worked obsidian pebble of locally obtainable obsidian. A dendrocalibrated radiocarbon age of 9905 BP dates this component and is consistent with other radiocarbon dates obtained from nearby, deeply buried archaeological contexts (Peterson 1989; Freidel et al. 1989). Cultural Features Data recovery excavations at the Long Tom site confirmed the test excavation and magnetometer survey results which indicated the site area contained a large number of cultural features. Twenty-five prehistoric features were exposed and examined during the data recovery investigations of the Long Tom site: 23 were discovered in the trench profiles and two were exposed during systematic investigations of the East and West Excavation blocks. The Long Tom site cultural features have been divided into four broad categories: earth ovens, rock clusters, and possible storage pits. Table 7.10 summarizes these features.

111 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site Table 7.10. Summary of cultural features exposed during data recovery investigations. Feature FCR Uncalibrated** Number Provenience Depth Stratum Diameter Content 14 C BP Associations Earth Ovens 1 52N/70W 65-80 2 140 21 - - 2 54N/70W 65-100 2 120 23 - - 4 55.5N/124W 55-70 2 150 25 - - 6 58N/145W 70-90 2 80 <1 - - 7 60.4N/145W 60-100 2 130 73 - - 9 74.6N/171W 60-85 2 180 10 - acorn, hazel frag 10 88.1N/171W 60-80 2 120 22 - camas, plum, Miner's lettuce 11 59.6N/179W 55-100 2 200 82 - camas, hazel frags 12 70N/179W 50-85 2 140 nr - hazel frag 13 66N/191W 70-85 2 200 nr - previously excavated 14a 70N/191W 65-95 2 >130 33 - - 14b 70N/191W 65-95 2 >130 16 - - 15* 79N/191W 60-95 2 180 <1 - hazel, acorn frag 16 72N/206W 50-70 2 200 51 - camas, plum 17 77N/206W 40-70 2 100 15 - - 18 87N/206W 55-70 2 110 11 - - 19 72N/214W 110-130 2 350 <1 4120±70 tools, camas, acorn, hazel 21 90N/165.3W 75-85 2 90 nr 22 90N/160W 65-85 2 >100 42 - - 23 65N/184W 65-110 2 160 28 - camas, hazel frags 24 85N/166W 70-100 2 200 27 3780±110 camas, plum, hazel Rock Cluster 3 55.5N/70W 70-80 2 50 7 - - 5 60N/124W 160-190 3 910 <1 8890±120 20 88N/214W 40-50 2 50 2 - - Pits 8 61N/145W 60-125 2 30 <1.0 - - 25 72N/214W 80-120 2 30 <1.0 - - * Feature 15 included both an oven feature containing little fire-cracked rock and a concentrated scatter of firecracked rock beyond the basin weighing approximately 10 kgs. ** Calibrations to calendar years reported in tables 5.1 and 7.7. Earth Ovens Characteristically, the archaeological remains of earth ovens are circular, basin-shaped pits containing pieces of fire-cracked rock and charcoal. The basin is often defined by a rim of baked earth, up to 5 cm thick, presumably the result of intense heating of clay particles in the surrounding soil matrix. According to ethnohistoric descriptions (e.g. Clyman 1960; Riddle 1968), earth ovens were primarily used to bake camas bulbs, the carbohydrate staple of the Kalapuyan Indians and many other groups of the Columbia Plateau and Northwest Coast. Their construction has been more recently recorded by Turner et al. (1980) for the Okanagan-Colville Indians of eastern Washington and British Columbia.

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 112 Figure 7.31. Feature 9 earth oven bisected by Trench171W. This oven measured approximately 180 cm in diameter with a basin approximately 25 cm deep. A 3 cm-thick rim of fired earth (bisque) defined the outer edge of the oven. Little fire-cracked rock was recovered within this oven. The construction and operation of earth ovens consist of several elements:! an excavated pit ranging from less than 1 meter to more than 3 meters in diameter, and from 20 to 50 cm deep;! stone to serve as the heating element of the oven;! firewood with which to heat the stone and to burn on top of the enclosed oven;! leafy plants to separate the bulbs from the heated rocks below and the covering soil above (these plants may also serve as a source of flavoring and moisture);! the bulbs which will be baked;! possibly, woven bags into which the bulbs will be placed to help facilitate their removal from the oven; and! soil to cover the baking bulbs and contain the heat radiating from the rocks. Archaeological investigation of an earth oven would anticipate discovering traces of some of these acitivities, particularly, evidence of the excavation of a pit, intensive heating--charcoal and bisque, and some rock. The organic remains are more problematic; because they were the focus of the activity they would have been removed from the oven following their cooking. Data recovery investigations at the Long Tom site identified the partial remains of 21 earth oven features (Figure 7.31). The diameter of these ovens ranges from approximately 80 cm to 350 cm, with a mean diameter of approximately 155 cm (standard deviation of approximately 60 cm). The mode is 130 cm. The diameter of an incompletely excavated feature could be estimated by (a) the length of the fire-cracked rock and charcoal stain in the trench profile; (b) the presence of the feature on opposite sides of the 60 cm-wide backhoe trench; and (c) extrapolation from the arc of the excavated portion.

113 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site Figure 7.32. The partial remains of Feature 4 earth oven along the west side of Trench 124W. The east half of the oven was removed by the backhoe while investigating and exposing its monopolar magnetic signature. At 350 cm, Feature 19 had the greatest diameter of any of the earth oven features at the Long Tom site and, though it was distinguished by a thick layer of baked earth, it contained almost no fire-cracked rock. Its shape was also unique, in that it was an elongated oval with dimensions of approximately 350 x 80 cm. Unlike the other features, the surrounding area contained a large number of formed tools and debitage. While charred camas macrofossils were recovered from this feature, nearly 21% of the hazelnut remains and over 50% of the acorn fragments came from Feature 19. Because of these associations, the classification of Feature 19 as an earth oven is problematic. It is possible that it served as a pit for drying foods in much the same manner as elongated huckleberry drying features (Mack 1989, 1992; French 1999). The weight of the fire-cracked rock found within the excavated portions of the oven features varied from less than 1 kg to 82 kg, with a mean weight of approximately 27 kg (standard deviation of approximately 23 kg). Both archaeological excavation techniques and aboriginal cultural practices may explain some of the variation seen in the measured rock content of these ovens. As described in previous sections, the cultural features were partly carved away as they were encountered by the backhoe during examination of the magnetic anomalies. In the process, fire-cracked rock was removed from the oven features prior to the recording of its weight (Figure 7.32). In order to address this sample bias, an estimate of the total fire-cracked rock content (weight) and frequency was calculated (Table 7.13). The total amount of firecracked rock estimated to have been present prior to exposure of an oven feature was calculated by dividing the weight of the recovered rock by the estimated proportion of the oven excavated. The estimated total fire-cracked rock from these reconstructed ovens averages approximately 45 kg, with a standard deviation of 31 kg. Excluding the three ovens with fire-cracked rock weights of less than 5 kg (Table 7.11), the mean weight for the remaining 15 ovens is calculated to be approximately 53 kg, with a standard deviation of 27 kg. As might be expected, there is a general tendency for larger diameter ovens to contain a greater amount of rock (Figure

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 114 Table 7.11. Estimated total weight and density of fire-cracked rock in Long Tom site earth ovens. Feature Estimated Recovered Proportion Estimated Estimated Number Diameter FCR (kg) Excavated Total FCR (kg) Density (kg/m²) 1 140 21 60% 35 22 2 120 23 40% 58 51 4 150 25 40% 63 36 6 80 <1 75% 1 2 7 130 73 75% 97 73 9 180 10 70% 14 6 10 120 22 50% 44 39 11 200 82 90% 91 29 14a 130 33 80% 41 31 14b 130 16 50% 32 24 15 180 <1 30% 3 1 16 200 51 50% 102 32 17 100 15 50% 30 38 18 110 11 30% 37 39 19 80 x 350 <1 50% 2 0.2 22 100 42 60% 70 89 23 160 28 50% 56 28 24 200 27 100% 27 9 7.33). Adjusting total fire-cracked rock weight to oven size yields an average value of 36 kg of rock/m² of oven area. This estimate is probably low, as some scavenging of rock from previously used ovens probably occurred. However, even some of the largest diameter ovens contain the least amount of rock. Even after reconstructing the total rock content of the ovens to minimize the bias caused by the unsystematic backhoe excavation of portions of these features, the variation in rock content is extreme--from 1 to 102 kg of fire-cracked rock (Table 7.11). In order to help explain this substantial variation in the amount of fire-cracked rock contained in each of the oven features, it seems reasonable to appeal to a notion of conservation of energy. In the alluvial setting of the Long Tom site, rock of suitable size for use in ovens does not naturally occur. It would have been gathered from the hillsides overlooking the river valley and carried to the camas processing site. In order to get the maximum return on the effort expended in transporting this rock, it appears that the makers of the ovens scavenged and reused some or all of the rock from past ovens in the construction of new ones. That would explain why some ovens still contain much fire-cracked rock--their heating elements remaining intact--and others have very little fire-cracked rock. The rock found in the earth ovens was predominantly sandstone but occasional cobble-size pieces of basalt were recorded. The thermal properties of sandstone and basalt (Pierce 1988) make these rock types suitable for their use in the heating element of an oven used to process such plants as camas which require a long, slow baking regime. The 180 cm-diameter and 35 cm-deep basin of Feature 15 contained little fire-cracked rock (Figure 7.34). However, immediately adjacent to it the excavators of this feature discovered a pile of angular sandstone cobbles weighing a total of 10 kg. This stack of rocks lay at the same elevation as the top of the oven, giving all the appearances of an intentionally dismantled oven. The earth ovens at the Long Tom site are thought to have been used for baking camas. Macrobotanical remains recovered from these features are few in number but include charred remains of camas bulbs (Table 7.10). Also included are the remains of other important plant foods such as acorn shells and meat, hazel nut shells, Indian plum seeds, and Miner's lettuce seed. None of the latter foods demand the type of processing required to render camas edible. It seems likely that these are incidental inclusions in the pits and were carbonized during the baking of the camas bulbs. It is possible that Miner's lettuce was used to separate the bulbs from the heated rocks below or the covering earth above. The occurrence of these other plant remains in concert does seem to indicate a late summer processing season, for this is when hazel, acorns, and Indian plum would be available for harvest.

115 Chapter 7 Archaeology of the Long Tom Site Figure 7.33. Plot of reconstructed total fire-cracked rock weight by earth oven diameter. Eliminating the very small weights, which probably represent ovens from which rock was scavenged for the construction of other ovens, this is, as might be expected, a general trend for larger ovens to contain more rock. Figure 7.34. Feature 15 earth oven contained little fire-cracked rock within the basin. In this photo, a stack of rock originally located beyond the rim of the oven has been removed and rests at the edge of the unit.

The Long Tom and Chalker Sites 116 Figure 7.35. Possible post mold or pit, Feature 8, along the edge of Trench 145W. It contained no fire-cracked rock and lacked evidence of the intensive heating seen in oven features. Wood charcoal recovered from two of the earth ovens examined during data recovery was submitted for radiocarbon assay. The dates returned, 4600 cal BP and 4100 cal BP, are consistent with the other late Middle Holocene dates obtained during the test phase at the Long Tom site. Few formed tools and pieces of lithic debitage are directly associated with the oven features, except as noted above for Feature 19 in the West Block area. The density of cultural material at these locations do not suggest that they were the locus of lithic reduction activities, though tool use and sharpening incidental to the main processing activities may have occurred. Rather, it is assumed that the debitage collected during the excavation and sifting of the feature fill originated as part of the "blending and smearing" of site deposits by its occupants. Rock Clusters Data recovery investigations at the Long Tom site uncovered three clusters of fire-cracked sandstone cobbles (Table 7.10). These features generally had little charcoal or bisque associated with them and were amorphous in shape. Features 3 and 20 were discovered in Stratum 2 deposits and would seem to represent scatters of rock removed from nearby oven features. In the case of Feature 3, it is closely associated with two other features that have the characteristics of ovens--basins, rocks, baked earth, and charcoal. Feature 20, at the north end of Trench 214W, is probably associated with a distinctive monopolar anomaly (M6) which has the characteristic signature of an oven. It seems likely that the backhoe trench missed the basin and exposed a cluster of sandstone rocks lying a short distance beyond the oven and placed there during its dismantling. Feature 5 was deeply buried in Stratum 3 deposits. The 1x2 meter excavation unit which examined the nine meter-long stain of bisque and fire-cracked rock at the bottom of trench 124W discovered a cluster of cobblesize sandstone rocks. Though pieces of bisque and small chunks of charcoal were observed, there was no evidence in the excavation of a prepared pit or basin. A radiocarbon date of 9900 cal BP was obtained on a charcoal sample collected from among the scattered stones. While no pit was observed and no monopolar magnetic anomaly is recorded at this location (because it is masked by an extensive dipolar anomaly traced to near-surface metal debris)