Strathprints Institutional Repository Dachwald, Bernd and Mengali, Giovanni and Quarta, Alessandro A. and Macdonald, M. and McInnes, C.R. (2007) Optical solar sail degradation modelling. In: 1st International Symposium on Solar Sailing (ISSS 2007), 2007-06-27-2007-06-29, Herrsching, Germany. (Unpublished) Strathprints is designed to allow users to access the research output of the University of Strathclyde. Copyright c and Moral Rights for the papers on this site are retained by the individual authors and/or other copyright owners. You may not engage in further distribution of the material for any profitmaking activities or any commercial gain. You may freely distribute both the url (http:// strathprints.strath.ac.uk/) and the content of this paper for research or study, educational, or not-for-profit purposes without prior permission or charge. Any correspondence concerning this service should be sent to Strathprints administrator: mailto:strathprints@strath.ac.uk http://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/
Dachwald, B. and Mengali, G. and Quarta, A.A. and Macdonald, M. and McInnes, C.R. (2007) Optical solar sail degradation modelling. In: 1st International Symposium on Solar Sailing (ISSS 2007), 27-29 June 2007, Herrsching, Germany. (Unpublished) http://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/7523/ Strathprints is designed to allow users to access the research output of the University of Strathclyde. Copyright and Moral Rights for the papers on this site are retained by the individual authors and/or other copyright owners. You may not engage in further distribution of the material for any profitmaking activities or any commercial gain. You may freely distribute both the url (http://strathprints.strath.ac.uk) and the content of this paper for research or study, educational, or not-for-profit purposes without prior permission or charge. You may freely distribute the url (http://strathprints.strath.ac.uk) of the Strathprints website. Any correspondence concerning this service should be sent to The Strathprints Administrator: eprints@cis.strath.ac.uk
Optical Solar Sail Degradation Modeling Bernd Dachwald 1, Giovanni Mengali 2, Alessandro A. Quarta 2, Malcolm Macdonald 3, Colin R. McInnes 4 1 German Aerospace Center (DLR), Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany 2 University of Pisa, Italy 3 SciSys Ltd., Bristol, UK 4 University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland, UK 1st International Symposium on Solar Sailing 27 29 June 2007, Herrsching, Germany Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 1 / 27
Outline The Problem The optical properties of the thin metalized polymer films that are projected for solar sails are assumed to be affected by the erosive effects of the space environment Optical solar sail degradation (OSSD) in the real space environment is to a considerable degree indefinite (initial ground test results are controversial and relevant in-space tests have not been made so far) The standard optical solar sail models that are currently used for trajectory and attitude control design do not take optical degradation into account its potential effects on trajectory and attitude control have not been investigated so far Optical degradation is important for high-fidelity solar sail mission analysis, because it decreases both the magnitude of the solar radiation pressure force acting on the sail and also the sail control authority Solar sail mission designers necessitate an OSSD model to estimate the potential effects of OSSD on their missions Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 2 / 27
Outline Our Approach We established in November 2004 a Solar Sail Degradation Model Working Group 1 (SSDMWG) with the aim to make the next step towards a realistic high-fidelity optical solar sail model We propose a simple parametric OSSD model that describes the variation of the sail film s optical coefficients with time, depending on the sail film s environmental history, i.e., the radiation dose The primary intention of our model is not to describe the exact behavior of specific film-coating combinations in the real space environment, but to provide a more general parametric framework for describing the general optical degradation behavior of solar sails 1 the authors and Volodymyr Baturkin, Victoria L. Coverstone, Benjamin Diedrich, Gregory P. Garbe, Marianne Görlich, Manfred Leipold, Franz Lura, Leonel Rios-Reyes, Daniel J. Scheeres, Wolfgang Seboldt, Bong Wie Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 3 / 27
Solar Sail Force Models Overview Different levels of simplification for the optical characteristics of a solar sail result in different models for the magnitude and direction of the SRP force: Model IR (Ideal Reflection) Most simple model Model SNPR (Simplified Non-Perfect Reflection) Optical properties of the solar sail are described by a single coefficient Model NPR (Non-Perfect Reflection) Optical properties of the solar sail are described by 3 coefficients Generalized Model by Rios-Reyes and Scheeres Optical properties are described by three tensors. Takes the sail shape and local optical variations into account Refined Model by Mengali, Quarta, Circi, and Dachwald Optical properties depend also on light incidence angle, surface roughness, and temperature Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 4 / 27
Solar Sail Force Models Overview Different levels of simplification for the optical characteristics of a solar sail result in different models for the magnitude and direction of the SRP force: Model IR (Ideal Reflection) Most simple model Model SNPR (Simplified Non-Perfect Reflection) Optical properties of the solar sail are described by a single coefficient Model NPR (Non-Perfect Reflection) Optical properties of the solar sail are described by 3 coefficients Generalized Model by Rios-Reyes and Scheeres Optical properties are described by three tensors. Takes the sail shape and local optical variations into account Refined Model by Mengali, Quarta, Circi, and Dachwald Optical properties depend also on light incidence angle, surface roughness, and temperature Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 4 / 27
Solar Sail Force Models Overview Different levels of simplification for the optical characteristics of a solar sail result in different models for the magnitude and direction of the SRP force: Model IR (Ideal Reflection) Most simple model Model SNPR (Simplified Non-Perfect Reflection) Optical properties of the solar sail are described by a single coefficient Model NPR (Non-Perfect Reflection) Optical properties of the solar sail are described by 3 coefficients Generalized Model by Rios-Reyes and Scheeres Optical properties are described by three tensors. Takes the sail shape and local optical variations into account Refined Model by Mengali, Quarta, Circi, and Dachwald Optical properties depend also on light incidence angle, surface roughness, and temperature Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 4 / 27
Solar Sail Force Models Overview Different levels of simplification for the optical characteristics of a solar sail result in different models for the magnitude and direction of the SRP force: Model IR (Ideal Reflection) Most simple model Model SNPR (Simplified Non-Perfect Reflection) Optical properties of the solar sail are described by a single coefficient Model NPR (Non-Perfect Reflection) Optical properties of the solar sail are described by 3 coefficients Generalized Model by Rios-Reyes and Scheeres Optical properties are described by three tensors. Takes the sail shape and local optical variations into account Refined Model by Mengali, Quarta, Circi, and Dachwald Optical properties depend also on light incidence angle, surface roughness, and temperature Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 4 / 27
Solar Sail Force Models Non-Perfect Reflection The Non-Perfectly Reflecting Solar Sail The non-perfectly reflecting solar sail model parameterizes the optical behavior of the sail film by the optical coefficient set P = {ρ, s, ε f, ε b, B f, B b } The optical coefficients for a solar sail with a highly reflective aluminum-coated front side and with a highly emissive chromium-coated back side are: P Al Cr = {ρ = 0.88, s = 0.94, ε f = 0.05, ε b = 0.55, B f = 0.79, B b = 0.55} Nomenclature ρ: reflection coefficient s: specular reflection factor ε f and ε b : emission coefficients of the front and back side, respectively B f and B b : non-lambertian coefficients of the front and back side, respectively Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 5 / 27
Degradation Model Overview (Reprise) Model IR (Ideal Reflection) Most simple model Model SNPR (Simplified Non-Perfect Reflection) Optical properties of the solar sail are described by a single coefficient Model NPR (Non-Perfect Reflection) Optical properties of the solar sail are described by 3 coefficients Generalized Model by Rios-Reyes and Scheeres Optical properties are described by three tensors. Takes the sail shape and local optical variations into account Refined Model by Mengali, Quarta, Circi, and Dachwald Optical properties depend also on light incidence angle, surface roughness, and temperature Those models do not include optical solar sail degradation (OSSD) Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 6 / 27
Degradation Model Data Available From Ground Testing Data Available From Ground Testing Much ground and space testing has been done to measure the optical degradation of metalized polymer films as second surface mirrors (metalized on the back side) No systematic testing to measure the optical degradation of candidate solar sail films (metalized on the front side) has been reported so far and preliminary test results are controversial Lura et. al. measured considerable OSSD after combined irradiation with VUV, electrons, and protons Edwards et. al. measured no change of the solar absorption and emission coefficients after irradiation with electrons alone Respective in-space tests have not been made so far The optical degradation behavior of solar sails in the real space environment is to a considerable degree indefinite Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 7 / 27
Degradation Model Parametric Degradation Model Simplifying Assumptions For a first OSSD model, we have made the following simplifications: 1 The only source of degradation are the solar photons and particles 2 The solar photon and particle fluxes do not depend on time (average sun without solar events) 3 The optical coefficients do not depend on the sail temperature 4 The optical coefficients do not depend on the light incidence angle 5 No self-healing effects occur in the sail film Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 8 / 27
Degradation Model Parametric Degradation Model Solar radiation dose (SRD) Let p be an arbitrary optical coefficient from the set P. With OSSD, p becomes time-dependent, p(t). With the simplifications stated before, p(t) is a function of the solar radiation dose Σ (dimension [ J/m 2] ) accepted by the solar sail within the time interval t t 0 : Σ(t) t t 0 S cos α dt = S 0 r 2 0 t t 0 cos α r 2 dt SRD per year on a surface perpendicular to the sun at 1 AU Σ 0 = S 0 1 yr = 1368 W/m 2 1 yr = 15.768 TJ/m 2 Dimensionless SRD Using Σ 0 as a reference value, the SRD can be defined in dimensionless form: Σ(t) = Σ(t) = r 2 t 0 cos α Σ 0 T t 0 r 2 dt where T 1 yr Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 9 / 27
Degradation Model Parametric Degradation Model Solar radiation dose (SRD) Let p be an arbitrary optical coefficient from the set P. With OSSD, p becomes time-dependent, p(t). With the simplifications stated before, p(t) is a function of the solar radiation dose Σ (dimension [ J/m 2] ) accepted by the solar sail within the time interval t t 0 : Σ(t) t t 0 S cos α dt = S 0 r 2 0 t t 0 cos α r 2 dt SRD per year on a surface perpendicular to the sun at 1 AU Σ 0 = S 0 1 yr = 1368 W/m 2 1 yr = 15.768 TJ/m 2 Dimensionless SRD Using Σ 0 as a reference value, the SRD can be defined in dimensionless form: Σ(t) = Σ(t) = r 2 t 0 cos α Σ 0 T t 0 r 2 dt where T 1 yr Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 9 / 27
Degradation Model Parametric Degradation Model Solar radiation dose (SRD) Let p be an arbitrary optical coefficient from the set P. With OSSD, p becomes time-dependent, p(t). With the simplifications stated before, p(t) is a function of the solar radiation dose Σ (dimension [ J/m 2] ) accepted by the solar sail within the time interval t t 0 : Σ(t) t t 0 S cos α dt = S 0 r 2 0 t t 0 cos α r 2 dt SRD per year on a surface perpendicular to the sun at 1 AU Σ 0 = S 0 1 yr = 1368 W/m 2 1 yr = 15.768 TJ/m 2 Dimensionless SRD Using Σ 0 as a reference value, the SRD can be defined in dimensionless form: Σ(t) = Σ(t) = r 2 t 0 cos α Σ 0 T t 0 r 2 dt where T 1 yr Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 9 / 27
Degradation Model Parametric Degradation Model Dimensionless SRD Using Σ 0 as a reference value, the SRD can be defined in dimensionless form: Σ(t) = Σ(t) = r 2 t 0 cos α Σ 0 T t 0 r 2 dt Σ(t) depends on the solar distance history and the attitude history z[t] = (r, α)[t] of the solar sail, Σ(t) = Σ(z[t]) Differential form for the SRD The equation for the SRD can also be written in differential form: Σ = r 0 2 cos α T r 2 with Σ(t 0 ) = 0 Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 10 / 27
Degradation Model Parametric Degradation Model Dimensionless SRD Using Σ 0 as a reference value, the SRD can be defined in dimensionless form: Σ(t) = Σ(t) = r 2 t 0 cos α Σ 0 T t 0 r 2 dt Σ(t) depends on the solar distance history and the attitude history z[t] = (r, α)[t] of the solar sail, Σ(t) = Σ(z[t]) Differential form for the SRD The equation for the SRD can also be written in differential form: Σ = r 0 2 cos α T r 2 with Σ(t 0 ) = 0 Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 10 / 27
Degradation Model Parametric Degradation Model Assumption that each p varies exponentially with Σ(t) Assume that p(t) varies exponentially between p(t 0 ) = p 0 and lim t p(t) = p p(t) = p + (p 0 p ) e λσ(t) The degradation constant λ is related to the half life solar radiation dose ˆΣ (Σ = ˆΣ p = p0+p 2 ) via λ = ln 2 ˆΣ Note that this model has 12 free parameters additional to the 6 p 0, 6 p and 6 half life SRDs ˆΣ p (too much for a simple parametric OSSD analysis) Reduction of the number of model parameters We use a degradation factor d and a single half life SRD for all p, ˆΣ p = ˆΣ p P Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 11 / 27
Degradation Model Parametric Degradation Model Assumption that each p varies exponentially with Σ(t) Assume that p(t) varies exponentially between p(t 0 ) = p 0 and lim t p(t) = p p(t) = p + (p 0 p ) e λσ(t) The degradation constant λ is related to the half life solar radiation dose ˆΣ (Σ = ˆΣ p = p0+p 2 ) via λ = ln 2 ˆΣ Note that this model has 12 free parameters additional to the 6 p 0, 6 p and 6 half life SRDs ˆΣ p (too much for a simple parametric OSSD analysis) Reduction of the number of model parameters We use a degradation factor d and a single half life SRD for all p, ˆΣ p = ˆΣ p P Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 11 / 27
Degradation Model Parametric Degradation Model Assumption that each p varies exponentially with Σ(t) Assume that p(t) varies exponentially between p(t 0 ) = p 0 and lim t p(t) = p p(t) = p + (p 0 p ) e λσ(t) The degradation constant λ is related to the half life solar radiation dose ˆΣ (Σ = ˆΣ p = p0+p 2 ) via λ = ln 2 ˆΣ Note that this model has 12 free parameters additional to the 6 p 0, 6 p and 6 half life SRDs ˆΣ p (too much for a simple parametric OSSD analysis) Reduction of the number of model parameters We use a degradation factor d and a single half life SRD for all p, ˆΣ p = ˆΣ p P Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 11 / 27
Degradation Model Parametric Degradation Model Reduction of the number of model parameters We use a degradation factor d and a single half life SRD for all p, ˆΣ p = ˆΣ p P EOL optical coefficients Because the reflectivity of the sail decreases with time, the sail becomes more matt with time, and the emissivity increases with time, we use: ρ = ρ 0 s = s 0 ε f 1 + d 1 + d = (1 + d)ε f 0 ε b = ε b0 B f = B f 0 B b = B b0 Degradation of the optical parameters in dimensionless form p(t) p 0 = ( ) 1 + de λσ(t) / (1 + d) for p {ρ, s} 1 + d ( 1 e λσ(t)) for p = ε f 1 for p {ε b, B f, B b } Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 12 / 27
Degradation Model Parametric Degradation Model Reduction of the number of model parameters We use a degradation factor d and a single half life SRD for all p, ˆΣ p = ˆΣ p P EOL optical coefficients Because the reflectivity of the sail decreases with time, the sail becomes more matt with time, and the emissivity increases with time, we use: ρ = ρ 0 s = s 0 ε f 1 + d 1 + d = (1 + d)ε f 0 ε b = ε b0 B f = B f 0 B b = B b0 Degradation of the optical parameters in dimensionless form p(t) p 0 = ( ) 1 + de λσ(t) / (1 + d) for p {ρ, s} 1 + d ( 1 e λσ(t)) for p = ε f 1 for p {ε b, B f, B b } Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 12 / 27
Degradation Model Parametric Degradation Model Reduction of the number of model parameters We use a degradation factor d and a single half life SRD for all p, ˆΣ p = ˆΣ p P EOL optical coefficients Because the reflectivity of the sail decreases with time, the sail becomes more matt with time, and the emissivity increases with time, we use: ρ = ρ 0 s = s 0 ε f 1 + d 1 + d = (1 + d)ε f 0 ε b = ε b0 B f = B f 0 B b = B b0 Degradation of the optical parameters in dimensionless form p(t) p 0 = ( ) 1 + de λσ(t) / (1 + d) for p {ρ, s} 1 + d ( 1 e λσ(t)) for p = ε f 1 for p {ε b, B f, B b } Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 12 / 27
Degradation Model Parametric Degradation Model OSSD Effects on the optical coefficients and the SRP force bubble ρ/ρ 0, s/s 0 1 0.95 0.9 0.85 d 0.04 0.02 0.14 0.2 0.1 0.12 0.18 0.16 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.060.08 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 Σ = 0.0 Σ = 0.5 Σ =1.0 Σ = 5.0 0.8 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 Σ ε f /ε f0 1.2 d 0.2 1.15 1.1 1.05 1 0.16 0.14 0.02 0.18 0.12 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.2 0.16 0.14 0.04 0.18 0.12 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 Σ degradation of optical coefficients e t e r degradation of SRP force bubble Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 13 / 27
Degradation Effects on Trajectory and Attitude Control Mars Rendezvous Mars Rendezvous Solar sail with 0.1 mm/s 2 a c < 6 mm/s 2 C 3 = 0 km 2 /s 2 2D-transfer from circular orbit to circular orbit Trajectories calculated by G. Mengali and A. Quarta using a classical indirect method with an hybrid technique (genetic + gradient-based algorithm) to solve the associated boundary value problem Degradation factor: 0 d 0.2 (0 20% degradation limit) Half life SRD: ˆΣ = 0.5 (S 0 yr) Three models: Model (a): Instantaneous degradation Model (b): Control neglects degradation ( ideal control law) Model (c): Control considers degradation Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 14 / 27
Degradation Effects on Trajectory and Attitude Control Mars Rendezvous Mars Rendezvous Trip times for 5% and 20% degradation limit d=0.05 d=0.2 3000 2500 no degradation model a model b model c 4000 3500 3000 no degradation model a model b model c t f [days] 2000 1500 t f [days] 2500 2000 1500 1000 1000 500 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 a c [mm/s 2 ] 500 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 a c [mm/s 2 ] 700 1000 900 600 800 t f [days] 500 400 t f [days] 700 600 500 300 400 300 200 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 a [mm/s 2 ] c 200 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 a [mm/s 2 ] c OSSD has considerable effect on trip times The results for model (b) and (c) are indistinguishable close Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 15 / 27
Degradation Effects on Trajectory and Attitude Control Mercury Rendezvous Mercury Rendezvous Solar sail with a c = 1.0 mm/s 2 C 3 = 0 km 2 /s 2 Trajectories calculated by B. Dachwald with the trajectory optimizer GESOP with SNOPT Arbitrarily selected launch window MJD 57000 t 0 MJD 57130 (09 Dec 2014 18 Apr 2015) Final accuracy limit was set to r f,max = 80 000 km (inside Mercury s sphere of influence at perihelion) and v f,max = 50 m/s Degradation factor: 0 d 0.2 (0 20% degradation limit) Half life SRD: ˆΣ = 0.5 (S 0 yr) Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 16 / 27
Degradation Effects on Trajectory and Attitude Control Mercury Rendezvous Mercury Rendezvous LaunchFrame window 001 05 Jul 2005 Mercury forlaunch different Window with OSSD d Frame 001 27 Jun 2005 Mercury Launch Window with OSSD Trip time [days] 450 Launch window for Mercury rendezvous Solar sail with a c =1.0mm/s 2 Degradation limit: 0% 5% 10% 400 20% Half life SRD = 0.5 (S 0 *yr) 350 Trip time increase [%] 35 30 25 20 15 10 Launch window for Mercury rendezvous Solar sail with a c =1.0mm/s 2 Degradation limit: 5% 10% 20% Half life SRD=0.5 (S 0 *yr) 5 57000 57050 57100 57150 Launch date (MJD) 0 57000 57050 57100 57150 Launch date (MJD) Sensitivity of the trip time with respect to OSSD depends considerably on the launch date Some launch dates considered previously as optimal become very unsuitable when OSSD is taken into account For many launch dates OSSD does not seriously affect the mission Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 17 / 27
Degradation Effects on Trajectory and Attitude Control Mercury Rendezvous Mercury Rendezvous Frame 001 14 Jul 2005 Optimal α-variation for different d Frame 001 14 Jul 2005 Pitch angle [rad] 1.1 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 Mercury rendezvous (solar sail with a c =1.0mm/s 2 ) Launch date = MJD 57000.0 Degradation limit: 0% 5% 10% 20% Half life SRD = 0.5 (S 0 *yr) Pitch angle [rad] 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 Mercury rendezvous (solar sail with a c =1.0mm/s 2 ) Launch date = MJD 57030.0 Degradation limit: 0% 5% 10% 20% Half life SRD = 0.5 (S 0 *yr) 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 57000 57100 57200 57300 Time (MJD) Launch at MJD 57000.0 0.3 57100 57200 57300 57400 Time (MJD) Launch at MJD 57030.0 OSSD can also have remarkable consequences on the optimal control angles Given an indefinite OSSD behavior at launch, MJD 57000.0 would be a very robust launch date Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 18 / 27
Degradation Effects on Trajectory and Attitude Control Fast Neptune Flyby Fast Neptune Flyby Solar sail with a c = 1.0 mm/s 2 C 3 = 0 km 2 /s 2 Trajectories calculated by B. Dachwald with the trajectory optimizer InTrance To find the absolute trip time minima, independent of the actual constellation of Earth and Neptune, no flyby at Neptune itself, but only a crossing of its orbit within a distance r f,max < 10 6 km was required, and the optimizer was allowed to vary the launch date within a one year interval Sail film temperature was limited to 240 C by limiting the sail pitch angle Degradation factor: 0 d 0.2 (0 20% degradation limit) Half life SRD: 0 ˆΣ 2 (S 0 yr) Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 19 / 27
Degradation Effects on Trajectory and Attitude Control Fast Neptune Flyby Fast Neptune Flyby Topology of optimal trajectories for different d -1 0 1 2-1 0 1 2 2 Fast Earth-Neptune transfer with solar sail (a c =1.0mm/s 2 ) 2 without degradation Sail Temp. [K] Flyby at Neptune orbit within Δr<1.0E6km 1.5 520 C 3 =0km 2 /s 2 at Earth 510 1.5 500 400 1 300 200 100 1 Fast Earth-Neptune transfer with solar sail (a c =1.0mm/s 2 ) 1.5 20% degradation limit, half life SRD = 0.5 (S 0 *yr) Sail Temp. [K] 1.5 Flyby at Neptune orbit within Δr<1.0E6km 520 C 3 =0km 2 /s 2 at Earth 510 1 500 1 400 300 200 0.5 100 0.5 y[au] 0.5 r min = 0.204 AU 0.5 = 513.15 K T lim = 240 C 0 0 y[au] 0 0 r min = 0.294 AU T lim = 513.15 K -0.5 = 240 C -0.5-0.5-0.5-1 -1 Trip time = 5.80 years -1 0 1 2 x [AU] d = 0-1 -1-1.5 Trip time = 7.87 years -1.5-1 0 1 2 x [AU] d = 0.2 With increasing degradation: Increasing solar distance during final close solar pass Increasing solar distance before final close solar pass Longer trip time Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 20 / 27
Degradation Effects on Trajectory and Attitude Control Fast Neptune Flyby Fast Neptune Flyby Trip time and trip time increase for different d and ˆΣ Frame 001 27 Jun 2005 Flight Time Frame 001 27 Jun 2005 Flight Time 8 Fast Earth-Neptune transfer with solar sail (a c =1.0mm/s 2 ) Half life SRD = 0.5 (S 0 *yr) 40 8 Fast Earth-Neptune transfer with solar sail (a c =1.0mm/s 2 ) Degradation limit = 10% 25 7 Flyby at Neptune orbit within Δr<1.0E6km C 3 =0km 2 /s 2 at Earth 30 7 Flyby at Neptune orbit within Δr<1.0E6km C 3 =0km 2 /s 2 at Earth 20 Triptime[yrs] 6 5 4 3 2 20 10 Trip time increase [%] Triptime[yrs] 6 5 4 3 2 15 10 5 Trip time increase [%] 1 0 0 0 5 10 15 20 Sail degradation limit [%] Different degradation factors d (ˆΣ = 0.5 (S 0 yr)) 1 without degradation faster degradation 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 1/HalflifeSRD[1/(S 0 *yr)] Different half life SRDs ˆΣ (d = 0.1) 0 Comparable results have been found by M. Macdonald for a mission to the heliopause. Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 21 / 27
Degradation Effects on Trajectory and Attitude Control Artificial Lagrange-Point Missions Artificial Lagrange-Point Missions Sun-Earth restricted circular three-body problem with non-perfectly solar sail SRP acceleration allows to hover along artificial equilibrium surfaces (manifold of artificial Lagrange-points) Solutions calculated by C. McInnes Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 22 / 27
Degradation Effects on Trajectory and Attitude Control Artificial Lagrange-Point Missions Artificial Lagrange-Point Missions Contours of sail loading in the x-z-plane ρ = 1 ρ = 0.9 [1] 30 g/m 2 [2] 15 g/m 2 [3] 10 g/m 2 [4] 5 g/m 2 Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 23 / 27
Degradation Effects on Trajectory and Attitude Control Artificial Lagrange-Point Missions Artificial Lagrange-Point Missions Contours of sail loading in the x-z-plane ρ = 1 ρ = 0.8 [1] 30 g/m 2 [2] 15 g/m 2 [3] 10 g/m 2 [4] 5 g/m 2 Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 24 / 27
Degradation Effects on Trajectory and Attitude Control Artificial Lagrange-Point Missions Artificial Lagrange-Point Missions Contours of sail loading in the x-z-plane ρ = 1 ρ = 0.7 [1] 30 g/m 2 [2] 15 g/m 2 [3] 10 g/m 2 [4] 5 g/m 2 Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 25 / 27
Summary and Conclusions Summary and Outlook All our results show that optical solar sail degradation has a considerable effect on trip times and on the optimal steering profile. For specific launch dates, especially those that are optimal without degradation, this effect can be tremendous Having demonstrated the potential effects of optical solar sail degradation on future missions, more research on the real degradation behavior has to be done To narrow down the ranges of the parameters of our model, further laboratory tests have to be performed Additionally, before a mission that relies on solar sail propulsion is flown, the candidate solar sail films have to be tested in the relevant space environment Some near-term missions currently studied in the US and Europe would be an ideal opportunity for testing and refining our degradation model Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 26 / 27
Summary and Conclusions Optical Solar Sail Degradation Modeling Bernd Dachwald 1, Giovanni Mengali 2, Alessandro A. Quarta 2, Malcolm Macdonald 3, Colin R. McInnes 4 1 German Aerospace Center (DLR), Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany 2 University of Pisa, Italy 3 SciSys Ltd., Bristol, UK 4 University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland, UK 1st International Symposium on Solar Sailing 27 29 June 2007, Herrsching, Germany Dachwald et al. (27 29 June 2007) Degradation Modeling ISSS 2007, Herrsching 27 / 27