Radiation Detection and Measurement Fourth Edition Glenn F. Knoll Professor Emeritus of Nuclear Engineering and Radiological Sciences University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan WILEY John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Contents Chapter 1 Radiation Sources I. Units and Definitions 2 II. Fast Electron Sources 3 III. Heavy Charged Particle Sources 6 IV. Sources of Electromagnetic Radiation 10 V. Neutron Sources 19 Chapter 2 Radiation Interactions 29 I. Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles 30 II. Interaction of Fast Electrons 42 III. Interaction of Gamma Rays 47 IV. Interaction of Neutrons 53 V. Radiation Exposure and Dose 56 Chapter 3 Counting Statistics and Error Prediction 65 I. Characterization of Data 66 II. Statistical Models 70 III. Applications of Statistical Models 79 IV. Error Propagation 85 V. Optimization of Counting Experiments 92 VI. Limits of Detectability 94 VII. Distribution of Time Intervals 99 Chapter 4 General Properties of Radiation Detectors 105 I. Simplified Detector Model 105 II. Modes of Detector Operation 106 III. Pulse Height Spectra 112 IV. Counting Curves and Plateaus 113 V. Energy Resolution 115 VI. Detection Efficiency 118 VII. Dead Time 121 Chapter 5 Ionization Chambers 131 I. The Ionization Process in Gases 131 II. Charge Migration and Collection 135 HI. Design and Operation of DC Ion Chambers 138 IV. Radiation Dose Measurement with Ion Chambers 142 V. Applications of DC Ion Chambers 146 VI. Pulse Mode Operation 149 \Tii
xxii Contents Chapter 6 Proportional Counters 159 I. Gas Multiplication 159 II. Design Features of Proportional Counters 164 III. Proportional Counter Performance 169 IV. Detection Efficiency and Counting Curves 184 V. Variants of the Proportional Counter Design 189 VI. Micropattern Gas Detectors 195 Chapter 7 Geiger-Mueller Counters 207 I. The Geiger Discharge 208 II. Fill Gases 210 III. Quenching 210 IV. Time Behavior 212 V. The Geiger Counting Plateau 214 VI. Design Features 216 VII. Counting Efficiency 217 VIII. Time-to-First-Count Method 219 IX. G-M Survey Meters 220 Chapter 8 Scintillation Detector Principles 223 I. Organic Scintillators 224 II. Inorganic Scintillators 235 III. Light Collection And Scintillator Mounting 258 Chapter 9 Photomultiplier Tubes and Photodiodes 275 I. Introduction 275 II. The Photocathode 276 III. Electron Multiplication 280 IV. Photomultiplier Tube Characteristics 283 V. Ancillary Equipment Required with Photomultiplier Tubes 294 VI. Photodiodes as Substitutes for Photomultiplier Tubes 297 VII. Scintillation Pulse Shape Analysis 308 VIII. Hybrid Photomultiplier Tubes 312 IX. Position-Sensing Photomultiplier Tubes 315 X. Photoionization Detectors 317 Chapter 10 Radiation Spectroscopy with Scintillators 321 I. General Considerations in Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy 321 II. Gamma-Ray Interactions 322 III. Predicted Response Functions 326 IV. Properties of Scintillation Gamma-Ray Spectrometers 338 V. Response of Scintillation Detectors to Neutrons 355 VI. Electron Spectroscopy with Scintillators 356 VII. Specialized Detector Configurations Based on Scintillation 357
Contents xxiü Chapter 11 Semiconductor Diode Detectors 365 I. Semiconductor Properties 366 II. The Action of Ionizing Radiation in Semiconductors 376 III. Semiconductors as Radiation Detectors 378 IV. Semiconductor Detector Configurations 387 V. Operational Characteristics 393 VI. Applications of Silicon Diode Detectors 402 Chapter 12 Germanium Gamma-Ray Detectors 415 I. General Considerations 415 II. Configurations of Germanium Detectors 416 III. Germanium Detector Operational Characteristics 424 IV. Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy with Germanium Detectors 437 Chapter 13 Other Solid-State Detectors 467 I. Lithium-Drifted Silicon Detectors 467 II. Semiconductor Materials Other Than Silicon or Germanium 485 III. Avalanche Detectors 499 IV. Photoconductive Detectors 501 V. Position-Sensitive Semiconductor Detectors 502 Chapter 14 Slow Neutron Detection Methods 519 I. Nuclear Reactions of Interest in Neutron Detection 519 II. Detectors Based on the Boron Reaction 523 III. Detectors Based on Other Conversion Reactions 532 IV. Reactor Instrumentation 539 Chapter 15 Fast Neutron Detection and Spectroscopy 553 I. Counters Based on Neutron Moderation 554 II. Detectors Based on Fast Neutron-Induced Reactions 562 III. Detectors That Utilize Fast Neutron Scattering 569 Chapter 16 Pulse Processing 595 I. Overview of Pulse Processing 595 II. Device Impedances 598 III. Coaxial Cables 599 IV. Linear and Logic Pulses 607 V. Instrument Standards 609 VI. Summary of Pulse-Processing Units 610 VII. Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) 612 VIII. Components Common to Many Applications 614 Chapter 17 Pulse Shaping, Counting, and Timing 625 I. Pulse Shaping II. Pulse Counting Systems 625 641
xxiv Contents III. Pulse Height Analysis Systems IV. Digital Pulse Processing V. Systems Involving Pulse Timing VI. Pulse Shape Discrimination Chapter 18 Multichannel Pulse Analysis I. Single-Channel Methods II. General Multichannel Characteristics III. The Multichannel Analyzer IV. Spectrum Stabilization and Relocation V. Spectrum Analysis Chapter 19 Miscellaneous Detector Types I. Cherenkov Detectors II. Gas-Filled Detectors in Self-Quenched Streamer Mode III. High-Pressure Xenon Spectrometers IV. Liquid Ionization and Proportional Counters V. Cryogenic Detectors VI. Photographic Emulsions VII. Thermoluminescent Dosimeters and Image Plates VIII. Track-Etch Detectors IX. Superheated Drop or "Bubble Detectors" X. Neutron Detection by Activation XI. Detection Methods Based on Integrated Circuit Components Chapter 20 Background and Detector Shielding 779 I. Sources of Background II. Background in Gamma-Ray Spectra III. Background in Other Detectors IV. Shielding Materials V. Active Methods of Background Reduction 779 784 789 791 795 Appendix A The NIM, CAMAC, and VME Instrumentation Standards 801 Appendix В Derivation of the Expression for Sample Variance in Chapter 3 807 Appendix С Statistical Behavior of Counting Data for Variable Mean Value 809 Appendix D The Shockley-Ramo Theorem for Induced Charge 813 Index 819