edition JIM Koupelis and Karl F.

edition JIM Koupelis and Karl F. "Wisconsin- * Eastern Kentucky University JONES AND BARTLETT PUBLISHERS S a db u! }/; Mtissncliii^cjts m BOSTON TORONTO * LONDON SINCAPORK

The Quest Ahead 1-1 The View From Earth 2 1-2 The Celestial Sphere 5 Constellations 6 Measuring the Positions of Celestial Objects 8 Celestial Coordinates 9 1-3 The Sun's Motion Across the Sky 10 The Ecliptic 11 The Sun and the Seasons 12 A Scientific Model 14 1-4 The Moon's Phases 16 1-5 Lunar Eclipses 19 Types of Lunar Eclipses 20 1-6 Solar Eclipses 22 The Partial Solar Eclipse 23 The Annular Eclipse 24 1-7 Observations of Planetary Motion 25 1-8 Rotations 26 1-9 Units of Distance in Astronomy 26 1-10 The Scale of the Universe 27 Simplicity and the Unity of Nature 29 1-11 Astronomy Today 29 Conclusion 30 Study Guide 30 From an Earth-Centered to a Sun-Centered System. 2-1 Science and Its Ways of Knowing 37 Criteria for Scientific Models 38 2-2 From an Earth-Centered to a Sun-Centered System 38 2-3 The Greek Geocentric Model 39 A Model of Planetary Motion: Epicycles 42 2-4 Aristarchus'Heliocentric Model 44 Measuring the Size of the Earth 47 2-5 The Marriage of Aristotle and Christianity 48 2-6 Nicolaus Copernicus and the Heliocentric Model 48 The Copernican System 49 2-7 Comparing the Two Models 54 2-8 Tycho Brahe:The Importance of Accurate Observations 55 Tycho's Model 56 2-9 Johannes Kepler and the Laws of Planetary Motion 56 The Ellipse 58 Kepler's First Two Laws of Planetary Motion 58 Kepler's Third Law 61 2-10 Kepler's Contribution 62 Conclusion 63 Study Guide 64.XXIV.36

Gravity and the Rise of Modern Astronomy. 3-1 Galileo Galilei and the Telescope 71 Observing the Moon, the Sun, and the Stars Jupiter's Moons 72 The Phases of Venus 74 3-2 Isaac Newton's Grand Synthesis 76 Newton's First Two Laws of Motion 76 An Important Digression Mass and Weight 77 Back to Newton's Second Law 78 Newton's Third Law 78 3-3 Motion in a Circle 79 3-4 The Law of Universal Gravitation 80 Arriving at the Law of Universal Gravitation 81 3-5 Newton's Laws and Kepler's Laws 82 3-6 Orbits and the Center of Mass 86 3-7 Beyond Newton 87 3-8 General Theory of Relativity 88 3-9 Gravitation and Einstein 90 Test 1: The Gravitational Bending of Light 90 Test 2: The Orbit of Mercury 91 Additional Tests 92 Conclusion 94 Study Guide 94 Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum 4-1 4-2 The Kelvin Temperature Scale 99 The Wave Nature of Light 99 Characteristics of Wave Motion 101 Light as a Wave 102 4-3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 104 4-4 The Colors of Planets and Stars 106 Color From Reflection The Colors of Planets 106 4-5 Color as a Measure of Temperature 106 Types of Spectra 109 Kirchhoff 's Laws 110 4-6 The Bohr Model of the Atom 111 Emission Spectra 113 Continuous and Absorption Spectra of the Stars 114 4-7 The Doppler Effect 118 The Doppler Effect in Astronomy 120 The Doppler Effect as a Measurement Technique Other Doppler Effect Measurements 122 120 Relative or Real Speed? 122 4-8 The Inverse Square Law of Radiation 122 Conclusion 123 Study Guide 124 71.70,98

Telescopes: Windows to the Universe 5-1 Refraction and Image Formation 129 5-2 The Refracting Telescope 131 Chromatic Aberration 132 5-3 The Powers of a Telescope 133 Angular Size and Magnifying Power 133 Light-Gathering Power 134 Resolving Power 136 5-4 The Reflecting Telescope 138 Large Optical Telescopes 139 Active and Adaptive Optics 141 Telescope Accessories 142 5-5 Radio Telescopes 145 5-6 Interferometry 146 5-7 Detecting Other Electromagnetic Radiation 150 Infrared Telescopes 150 The GALEX Ultraviolet Telescope 151 X-ray Telescopes 151 Gamma-ray Telescopes 152 Conclusion 155 Study Guide 157 The Earth-Moon System 6-1 Measuring the Moon's Distance and Size 161 The Distance to the Moon 161 The Size of the Moon 161 The Small-Angle Formula 162 Summary: Two Measuring Techniques 163 The Moon's Changing Size 164 6-2 The Tides 164 Rotation and Revolution of the Moon 167 Precession of the Earth 168 6-3 Earth 169 The Interior of the Earth 169 Plate Tectonics 170 Earth's Atmosphere 172 Earth's Magnetic Field 173 6-4 The Moon's Surface 175 6-5 Theories of the Origin of the Moon 179 The Large Impact Theory 181 6-6 The History of the Moon 181 Conclusion 182 Study Guide 184.128.160 A Planetary Overview 7-1 Sizes and Distances in the Solar System 189 Measuring Distances in the Solar System 192.188 7-2 Measuring Mass and Average Density 194 Calculating Average Density 195 7-3 Planetary Motions 196

7-4 Classifying the Planets 197 Size, Mass, and Density 197 Satellites and Rings 197 Rotations 197 7-5 Planetary Atmospheres 199 Gases and Escape Velocity 200 The Atmosphere of the Planets 201 7-6 The Formation of the Solar System 202 Evidential Clues From the Data 202 Evolutionary Theories 202 Catastrophe Theories 203 Present Evolutionary Theories 204 Explaining Other Clues 207 7-7 Planetary Systems Around Other Stars 208 The Formation of Planetary Systems 213 Conclusion 215 Study Guide 216 Q The Terrestrial Planets 220 8-1 Mercury 221 Mercury as Seen From Earth 221 Mercury via Mariner Comparison With the Moon 221 Structural Characteristics 224 Mercury's Motions 225 8-2 Venus 227 Structural Characteristics 227 Venus' Motions 227 The Surface of Venus 229 The Atmosphere of Venus 232 A Hypothesis Explaining Venus/Earth Differences 233 8-3 Mars 235 Mars as Seen From Earth 235 Structural Characteristics 236 Mars' Motions 237 Early Speculations on Life on Mars 238 Invasion and Its Results 238 The Surface of Mars 240 Atmospheric Conditions 245 The Moons of Mars 252 8-4 Why Explore? 254 Conclusion 254 Study Guide 255 The Jovian Planets 260 9-1 Jupiter 261 Jupiter as Seen From Earth 261 Jupiter as Seen From Space 262 The Composition of Jupiter's Atmosphere 264 Jupiter's Interior 265 Energy From Jupiter 267 Jupiter's Moons 268 Summary: The Galilean Moons 272 Jupiter's Rings 272

9-2 Saturn 272 Size, Mass, and Density 273 Saturn's Motions 273 Pioneer, Voyager, and Cassini 273 Saturn's Excess Energy 276 Enceladus and Titan 276 Planetary Rings 280 The Origin of Rings 281 9-3 Uranus 282 Uranus' Orientation and Motion 284 9-4 Neptune 288 Neptune's Moons and Rings 290 Conclusion 291 Study Guide 292 10 Dwarf Planets and Solar System Debris 296 10-1 10-2 10-3 Pluto 298 Pluto as Seen From Earth Pluto and Its Moons 298 A Former Moon of Neptune? Solar System Debris 300 Asteroids 300 The Orbits of Asteroids 302 The Origin of Asteroids 304 Comets 305 298 300 10-4 Cometary Orbits Isaac Newton and Edmund Halley The Nature of Comets 306 Comet Tails 308 Missions to Comets 309 10-5 The Oort Cloud and the Kuiper Belt 310 10-6 10-7 The Origin of Short-Period Comets 313 Meteors and Meteor Showers 314 Meteors 314 Meteoroids 315 Meteor Showers 315 Meteorites and Craters 317 10-8 The Importance of the Solar System Debris 320 Conclusion 323 Study Guide 323 305 11 The Sun 11-1 Solar Properties 329 11-2 Solar Energy 330 The Source of the Sun's Energy 11-3 330 Solar Nuclear Reactions 332 The Sun's Interior 335 Pressure, Temperature, and Density 335 Hydrostatic Equilibrium 337 Energy Transport 337 Solar Neutrinos and the Standard Solar Model 339.328

11-4 Helioseismology 343 11-5 The Solar Atmosphere 344 The Photosphere 344 The Chromosphere and Corona 346 The Solar Wind 350 11-6 Sunspots and the Solar Activity Cycle 351 Modeling the Sunspot Cycle and the Sunspots 351 Solar Flares and Coronal Mass Ejections 354 Conclusion 357 Study Guide 357 Measuringthe Properties of Stars 12-1 Stellar Luminosity 363 Apparent Magnitude 363 12-2 Measuring Distances to Stars 366 Absolute Magnitude 368 12-3 Motions of Stars 369 12-4 Spectral Types 371 The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram 373 Spectroscopic Parallax 374 Luminosity Classes 376 Analyzing the Spectroscopic Parallax Procedure Luminosity and the Sizes of Stars 377 12-5 Multiple Star Systems 379 Visual Binaries 380 Spectroscopic Binaries 381 Eclipsing Binaries 382 Other Binary Classifications 383 12-6 Stellar Masses and Sizes From Binary Star Data 383 12-7 The Mass-Luminosity Relationship 385 12-8 Cepheid Variables as Distance Indicators 385 Conclusion 388 Study Guide 389 377 362 Interstellar Matter and Star Formation 13-1 Interstellar Medium 395 Interstellar Dust 395 Interstellar Gas 398 Clouds and Nebulae 399 13-2 A Brief Woodland Visit 403 13-3 Star Birth 403 The Collapse of Interstellar Clouds 404 Protostars 406 Evolution Toward the Main Sequence 407 Star Clusters 411 Conclusion 413 Study Guide 415 394

14 The Lives and Deaths of Low-Mass Stars 14-1 Brown Dwarfs 419 14-2 Stellar Maturity 421 Stellar Nuclear Fusion 421 The Stellar Thermostat 422 Main Sequence Life of Stars 422 14-3 Star Death 424 14-4 Very Low Mass Stars (< 0.4 M o ) 424 14-5 Beyond the Very Low Mass Stars:The Red Giant Stage 426 14-6 Moderately Low Mass Stars (0.4-4 M o ) 427 Electron Degeneracy and the Helium Flash 427 Stellar Pulsations 430 Mass Loss From Red Giants 431 Planetary Nebulae 432 14-7 White Dwarfs 437 The Chandrasekhar Limit 438 Characteristics of White Dwarfs 438 Novae 439 14-8 Type I Supernovae 440 Conclusion 442 Study Guide 444.418 16 The Deaths of Massive Stars 15-1 15-2 Moderately Massive and Very Massive Stars (> 4 M 0 ) Type II Supernovae 452 Detecting Supernovae 454 15-3 SN1987A 455 15-4 15-5 15-6 Neutron Stars 457 Theory: Collapse of a Massive Star 457 Observation: The Discovery of Pulsars 458 The Lighthouse Model of Neutron Stars/Pulsars 460 Theory: The Emission of Radiation Pulses 460 Observation: The Crab Pulsar and Others 462 Moderately Massive Stars Conclusion 465 15-7 General Relativity 466 A Binary Pulsar 468 15-8 The Fate of Very Massive Stars 468 Black Holes 469 Properties of Black Holes 470 Detecting Black Holes 471 15-9 Our Relatives The Stars 475 Conclusion 477 Study Guide 479 449.448 The Milky Way Galaxy 482 16-1 Our Galaxy 483 Globular Clusters 486 16-2 Components of the Galaxy 489 Galactic Motions 491 The Mass of the Galaxy 493

17 16-3 The Spiral Arms 493 16-4 Spiral Arm Theories 496 The Density Wave Theory 496 The Self-Propagating Star Formation Theory 16-5 The Galactic Nucleus 499 16-6 The Evolution of the Galaxy 503 Age and Composition of the Galaxy 503 The Galaxy's History 505 Conclusion 506 Study Guide 507 A Diversity of Galaxies.. 17-1 The Hubble Classification 511 Spiral Galaxies 511 Elliptical Galaxies 513 Irregular Galaxies 515 Hubble's Tuning Fork Diagram 17-2 17-3 17-4 17-5.17-6 516 499 Measuring Galaxies 517 Distances Measured by Various Indicators 518 The Hubble Law 519 The Hubble Law Used to Measure Distance 524 The Tully-Fisher Relation 524 The Masses of Galaxies 525 Clusters of Galaxies; Missing Mass 526 The Origin of Galactic Types 530 The Cloud Density Theory 530 The Merger Theory 531 Look-Back Time 531 Active Galaxies 533 Quasars 535 Competing Theories for the Quasar Redshift 537 Seyfert Galaxies 538 Quasars and Gravitational Lenses 538 Quasars, Blazars, and Superluminal Motion 540 The Nature of Active Galactic Nuclei 542 Conclusion 546 Study Guide 547,510 18 Cosmology:The Nature of the Universe 550 18-1 The Search for Centers and Edges 551 Einstein's Universe 552 18-2 The Expanding Universe 554 What Is Expanding and What Is Not? The Cosmological Redshift 555 Olbers' Paradox 558 18-3 Cosmological Assumptions 559 18-4 The Big Bang 560 Evidence: Background Radiation 562 Additional Evidence for the Big Bang 565 The Age of the Universe 566 18-5 The Future:Will Expansion Stop? 567 Evidence: Distant Galaxies and High-Redshift Type la Supernovae 568

18-6 The Inflationary Universe 570 The Flatness Problem 571 The Horizon Problem 572 18-7 The Grand Scale Structure of the Universe 573 Cosmic Evolution 581 Conclusion 583 Study Guide 584 19 t The Quest for Extraterrestrial Intelligence 19-1 Radio Searches and SETI 589 19-2 Communication With Extraterrestrial Intelligence 19-3 Letters to Extraterrestrials 591 The Pioneer Plaques 591 The Voyager Records 592 Will the Message Be Found? 593 19-4 The Origin of Life 593 19-5 The Drake Equation 594 19-6 Where Is Everybody? 595 Conclusion 596 Study Guide 597 590,588 Appendixes Appendix A Units and Constants 599 Appendix B Solar Data 599 Appendix C Planetary Data 600 Appendix D Planetary Satellites 612 Appendix E The Brightest Stars 615 Appendix F The Nearest Stars 616 Appendix G The Constellations 617 Appendix H Answers to Selected Questions, Calculations, and Try One Yourself Exercises 620 Glossary 629 Index 637