Introduction to Aircraft Flight. Mechanics i Performance, Static Stability, Dynamic Stability, Classical Feedback Control, and State-Space Foundations Second Edition Thomas R. Yechout with contributions by Steven L. Morris David E. Bossert Wayne F. Hallgren James K. Hall.0 ihcjrlm AIM EDUCATION SERIES Joseph A. Schetz, Editor-in-Chief Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg, Virginia Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. ^Jk mmm m 20191-4344 &AMr%At 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, Virginia
CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgments xv xvii Chapter 1 A Review of Basic Aerodynamics 1 1.1 Fundamental Concepts and Relationships 1 1.2 The Standard Atmosphere 13 1.3 Airfoil Fundamentals 16 1.4 Finite Wings 45 1.5 Aircraft Aerodynamics 50 1.6 Historical Snapshots 55 References 61 Problems 62 Chapter 2 A Review of Basic Propulsion 65 2.1 Types of 65 Propulsion Systems 2.2 Propulsion System 2.3 Historical Snapshot-Aircraft Performance Modeling Characteristics 71 and the Learjet Model 35 81 Reference 83 Problems 83 Chapter 3 Aircraft Performance 85 3.1 Airspeed 85 3.2 Equations of Motion for Straight, Level, and Unaccelerated Flight 93 3.3 Thrust and Power Curves 95 3.4 Takeoff and Landing Performance 98 3.5 Gliding Flight 109 3.6 Climbs 115 3.7 Endurance 118 3.8 Range 123 x/'
xii Introduction to Aircraft Flight Mechanics 3.9 Turn Performance and V-n Diagrams 134 3.10 Energy Maneuverability 143 3.11 Historical Snapshots 152 References 157 Problems 157 Chapter 4 Aircraft Equations of Motion 163 4.1 Aircraft Axis Systems 163 4.2 Coordinate Transformations 165 4.3 Aircraft Force Equations 171 4.4 Moment Equations 174 4.5 Longitudinal and Lateral-Directional Equations of Motion 181 4.6 Kinematic Equations 183 4.7 Historical Snapshots 187 References 192 Problems 193 Chapter 5 Aircraft Static Stability 195 5.1 Static Stability Overview 196 5.2 Stability, Control Power, and Cross-Control Derivatives, and Control Deflection Sign Convention 197 5.3 Longitudinal Applied Forces and Moments 200 5.4 Longitudinal Static Stability 214 5.5 Lateral-Directional Applied Forces and Moments 225 5.6 Lateral-Directional Static Stability 239 5.7 Summary of Steady-State Force and Moment Derivatives 252 5.8 Historical Snapshots 252 References 259 Problems 260 Chapter 6 Linearizing the Equations of Motion 265 6.1 Small Perturbation Approach 265 6.2 Developing the Linearized Aircraft Equations 6.3 First-Order Approximation of Applied Aero Forces of Motion 267 and Moments 270 6.4 First-Order Approximation of Perturbed Thrust Forces and Moments 305 6.5 Recasting the Equations of Motion in Acceleration Format 310 6.6 Historical Snapshots 317 References 323 Problems 323
Contents xiii Chapter 7 Aircraft Dynamic Stability 331 7.1 Mass-Spring-Damper System and Classical Solutions of Ordinary Differential Equations 331 7.2 Root Representation Using the Complex Plane 344 7.3 Transforming the Linearized EOM to the Laplace Domain 349 7.4 Dynamic Stability Guidelines 384 7.5 Cooper-Harper Ratings 400 7.6 Experimental Determination of Second-Order Parameters 402 7.7 Historical Snapshots 406 References 413 Problems 413 Chapter 8 Classical Feedback Control 421 8.1 Open-Loop Systems, Transfer Functions, and Block Diagrams 422 8.2 Closed-Loop Systems 425 8.3 Closed-Loop Analysis of a Second-Order System 427 8.4 Closed-Loop Transfer Functions 431 8.5 Time Response Characteristics 434 8.6 Root Locus Analysis 437 8.7 Historical Snapshots 457 Reference 460 Problems 460 Chapter 9 Aircraft Stability and Control Augmentation 465 9.1 Inner-Loop Stability and Control 465 9.2 Outer-Loop Autopilot/Navigation Control 478 9.3 Compensation Filters 484 9.4 Combined Systems 491 9.5 Historical Snapshots 498 References 505 Problems 506 Chapter 10 Bode, State Space, and Special Topics 509 10.1 System Type and Steady-State Error 509 10.2 Frequency Response 527 10.3 Digital Control 572 10.4 Advanced Control Algorithms 577
xiv Introduction to Aircraft Flight Mechanics 10.5 Reversible and Irreversible Flight Control Systems 579 10.6 Spins 582 10.7 State-Space Approach 587 10.8 Historical Snapshot F-16 Fly-by-Wire System 602 Reference 606 Problems 606 Chapter 11 A-10 Insights 611 11.1 Background 611 11.2 Engine Placement 613 11.3 Wing Placement 615 11.4 Gun Placement 615 11.5 Main Landing Gear 617 11.6 Tail Configuration 617 11.7 Wing Airfoil Sections 618 11.8 Manual Reversion System 620 11.9 Rivets 620 11.10 Slats and Fuselage Fences 621 References 622 Appendix A Conversions 623 Appendix B Properties of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere 625 Appendix C Airfoil Data 633 Appendix D T-38 Performance Data 645 Appendix E Selected Laplace Transforms 657 Appendix F Cramer's Rule 659 Appendix G Development of Longitudinal and Lateral-Directional Transfer Functions 661 Appendix H Stability Characteristics of Selected Aircraft 665 Bibliography Index 683 Supporting Materials 701 681,J