CONTENTS PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...xi ABBREVIATIONS... xiii FIGURES...xvii INTRODUCTION...1 CHAPTER 1 MAPS OF THE MARITIME WORLD AND LEGAL DEFINITIONS...21 1.1 Maps of the Maritime World...21 1.1.1 Ocean, Open Sea, and Enclosed or Semi-Enclosed Sea...22 1.1.2 Gulf...23 1.1.3 Maritime Region and Sub-Region...23 1.1.4 Bay...24 1.1.5 Island and Archipelago...25 1.1.6 Rock...28 1.1.7 Low-Tide Elevation...32 1.1.8 Reef...34 1.1.9 Atoll...34 1.1.10 Delta...35 1.1.11 Estuary...35 1.1.12 Continental Margin...36 1.2 Maritime Toponymy...36 1.2.1 Describing the Place...37 1.2.2 Recalling History and Exploration...37 1.2.3 Honouring the Sovereign...37 1.2.4 Disputing Territory...37 1.2.5 Invoking the Saints...38 CHAPTER 2 GEOPOLITICAL AND LEGAL HISTORY OF THE MARITIME WORLD...39 2.1 Great Sailors and Explorers...39 2.1.1 The Early Times...39 2.1.2 The Middle Ages...40 2.1.3 Great Discoveries...40 2.1.4 Scientists in Pursuit of the Last Frontiers...41 2.2 Sea Power and Land Power...41 2.2.1 Admiral Alfred Mahan...41 2.2.2 Sir Halford Mackinder...42 2.2.3 Professor Nicholas J. Spykman...42 2.2.4 Major-General Karl Haushofer...42 2.2.5 Professor Marc-Louis Ropivia...43
iv CONTENTS 2.3 Legal History of the Maritime World...43 2.3.1 Publications, Laws, Conventions and Agreements...43 2.3.2 Judgments and Arbitral Awards...48 2.3.2.1 Territorial Sovereignty and Maritime Delimitation...48 2.3.2.2 Territorial Sovereignty...49 2.3.2.3 Maritime Delimitation...49 2.3.2.4 Fisheries and Hunting...49 2.3.2.5 International Straits or Canals...50 2.3.2.6 Use of Force...50 2.3.2.7 Environment...50 2.3.2.8 Other...50 CHAPTER 3 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF STATES IN RELATION TO THE SEA...53 3.1 Land-Locked States...54 3.2 Transit States...63 3.3 Geographically Disadvantaged States...64 3.4 Coastal States...65 3.5 Archipelagic States...65 3.6 Island States...71 CHAPTER 4 MARINE RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT...75 4.1 Main Categories of Offshore Resources...76 4.1.1 Living Resources...76 4.1.2 Mineral Resources...78 4.1.3 Hydrothermal Vents and Genetic Materials...80 4.1.4 Energy from Waves, Tides, Wind, and Thermal Energy...82 4.1.5 Sea Tourism...83 4.1.6 Wrecks...85 4.2 Resources Transportation...89 4.2.1 Sea Ports in the World...90 4.2.2 World Fleet...90 4.2.3 Threats to the Environment by Oil Exploitation and Transportation...91 4.3 Main Illegal Activities at Sea...94 4.3.1 Piracy and Armed Robbery...94 4.3.2 Terrorism and Weapons of Mass Destruction...97 4.3.3 Human Smuggling...104 4.3.4 Drug Trafficking...106 4.3.5 Illegal Fishing...107 4.3.6 Illegal Blockade...109 CHAPTER 5 MARITIME ZONES UNDER NATIONAL JURISDICTION...111 5.1 Internal Waters...111
CONTENTS v 5.1.1 Indented Coastline or Fringe of Islands along the Coast...117 5.1.2 Bay...119 5.1.3 Historic Bay...121 5.1.4 River...128 5.1.5 Delta...129 5.1.6 Atoll and Reef...130 5.1.7 Harbour and Roadstead...130 5.2 Archipelagic Waters...132 5.3 Territorial Sea...134 5.4 Contiguous Zone...141 5.5 Exclusive Economic Zone...145 5.6 Continental Shelf...148 CHAPTER 6 MARITIME ZONES BEYOND THE LIMITS OF NATIONAL JURISDICTION...157 6.1 The High Seas...157 6.1.1 The Principle of Freedom...157 6.1.2 Flag State Exclusive Jurisdiction and the Exceptions...159 6.1.2.1 Slavery...163 6.1.2.2 Piracy...164 6.1.2.3 Unauthorized Broadcasting...169 6.1.2.4 Drug Trafficking...170 6.2 The International Deep Seabed...172 6.2.1 The Legal Regime...173 6.2.2 The Authority and the Assembly...173 6.2.3 The Seabed Disputes Chamber...174 6.3 Antarctica and Its Surrounding Waters...175 6.3.1 The Antarctic Treaty System...175 6.3.2 Cases before the ICJ...178 6.3.3 Claims to Extended Continental Shelves...179 CHAPTER 7 INTERNATIONAL STRAITS AND CANALS...183 7.1 International Straits...183 7.1.1 Straits 24 Miles Wide or Less...187 7.1.2 Straits More Than 24 Miles Wide...190 7.1.3 Straits Between an Island of a State Bordering It and Its Mainland...190 7.1.4 Straits Between High Seas or an EEZ and the Territorial Sea of a Foreign State...192 7.1.5 Straits in Archipelagic Waters...193 7.1.6 Straits Regulated by Long-Standing Conventions...194 7.1.7 Straits Belonging to Only One State...197 7.1.8 Straits Not Yet Delimited...198 7.2 International Canals...200 7.2.1 The Suez Canal...200 7.2.2 The Panama Canal...201
vi CONTENTS 7.2.3 The Kiel Canal...203 7.2.4 The Corinth Canal...204 CHAPTER 8 INTERNATIONAL MARITIME BOUNDARIES...205 8.1 The Legal Rules of Delimitation...207 8.1.1 International Conventions...208 8.1.2 International Custom...209 8.1.3 Judicial Decisions...210 8.1.4 Teachings of Publicists...210 8.1.5 General Principles of Law...210 8.2 Relevant Circumstances...211 8.2.1 Geography...212 8.2.2 Geomorphology and Geology...215 8.2.3 History...218 8.2.4 Economy...221 8.2.5 Navigation...225 8.2.6 Geopolitics and Strategy...225 8.3 The Methods of Delimitation...227 8.3.1 Equidistance (or Median)...229 8.3.2 Modified Equidistance...232 8.3.3 Perpendicular Line to the General Direction of the Coast...232 8.3.4 Astronomical Line...234 8.3.5 Corridor...237 8.3.6 Arc of Circle...239 8.3.7 Bisector Line...243 8.3.8 Extension of the Land Boundary or the Territorial Sea Boundary...245 8.3.9 Thalweg...246 8.4 A Short Overview...250 CHAPTER 9 PACIFIC SETTLEMENT OF MARITIME DISPUTES...257 9.1 Negotiation...264 9.2 Inquiry...265 9.3 Mediation...267 9.4 Good Offices...268 9.5 Conciliation...269 9.6 Arbitration...271 9.7 Judicial Settlement...274 9.7.1 International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea...275 9.7.2 International Court of Justice...279 9.8 Resort to Regional Agencies or Arrangements...281 CHAPTER 10 RECENT CASE LAW ON MARITIME ISSUES...285 10.1 The Malaysia/Singapore Case...286
CONTENTS vii 10.1.1 Geography of the Islands...287 10.1.2 Historical Background of the Dispute...288 10.1.3 Sovereignty over Pedra Island...289 10.1.4 Sovereignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge...291 10.1.5 Operative Clause of the Judgment...291 10.2 The Romania v. Ukraine Case...291 10.2.1 The Preliminary Legal Questions...291 10.2.2 The Existing Maritime Delimitation...293 10.2.3 The Relevant Coasts and Maritime Area...293 10.2.4 The Delimitation Methodology...294 10.2.5 Establishment of the Provisional Equidistance Line...294 10.2.6 The Relevant Circumstances...295 10.2.7 The Maritime Boundary...295 10.2.8 The Disproportionality Test...295 10.3 The Nicaragua v. Colombia Case...296 10.3.1 The Judgment on Preliminary Objections...297 10.3.2 Interventions Submitted by Costa Rica and Honduras...297 10.3.2.1 Costa Rica...298 10.3.2.2 Honduras...298 10.3.3 Territorial Sovereignty over the Disputed Islands...298 10.3.4 The Maritime Boundary Within 200 Nautical Miles...299 10.3.5 The Maritime Boundary Beyond 200 Nautical Miles...301 10.3.6 Alleged Violations of Nicaragua s rights...302 10.4 The Peru v. Chile Case...303 10.4.1 Is There an Agreed Maritime Boundary?...303 10.4.2 The Extent of the Agreed Maritime Boundary...305 10.4.3 The Boundary Beyond 80 Miles...306 10.4.4 The Dissenting Opinions...307 10.5 The Australia v. Japan Case...307 10.5.1 The Application...307 10.5.2 The Court s Jurisdiction...309 10.5.3 The Decision...309 10.6 The Bolivia v. Chile Case...310 10.6.1 The Dispute and the Jurisdiction of the Court...311 10.6 2 The Facts...311 10.6.3 The Legal Grounds and the Submissions...313 10.7 The Netherlands v. Russia Case...313 10.7.1 The Incident...313 10.7.2 The Request for the Prescription of Provisional Measures...314 10.7.3 The Order...315 10.7.4 After the Order...316 CHAPTER 11 CANADA AND THE SEA...317 11.1 The Maritime Zones under Canadian Jurisdiction...319 11.1.1 Internal Waters...319 11.1.2 Territorial Sea...323
viii CONTENTS 11.1.3 Contiguous Zone...325 11.1.4 Exclusive Economic Zone...325 11.1.5 Fishing Zones...326 11.1.6 Continental Shelf...327 11.2 International Maritime Boundaries...329 11.2.1 The Canada/Denmark Boundary...329 11.2.2 The Canada/United States Boundary in the Gulf of Maine...330 11.2.3 The Canada/France Boundary...333 11.2.4 The Canada/United States Boundary in the Dixon Entrance...334 11.2.5 The Canada/United States Boundary in the Juan de Fuca Strait...335 11.3 Internal Maritime Boundaries...335 11.3.1 Gulf of St. Lawrence...335 11.3.2 Boundaries in the Atlantic Ocean...338 11.3.3 Hudson Bay...339 11.3.4 Arctic Ocean...342 11.4 Canada s Strategy in the Arctic...343 11.4.1 Exercising Sovereignty...343 11.4.2 Protecting Environmental Heritage...343 11.4.3 Promoting Social and Economic Environment...344 11.4.4 Improving and Devolving Northern Governance...344 11.5 Illegal Activities at Sea...344 11.5.1 Piracy...344 11.5.2 Terrorism...345 11.5.3 Illegal Fishing...346 11.5.4 Human Smuggling...348 CHAPTER 12 THE ARCTIC...349 12.1 Territorial Sovereignty over Archipelagos and Islands...350 12.1.1 Ellesmere...352 12.1.2 Svalbard...354 12.1.3 Sverdrup...355 12.1.4 Greenland...356 12.1.5 Wrangel...358 12.1.6 Hans...360 12.2 Extended Continental Shelves...363 12.2.1 Russia...364 12.2.2 Norway...366 12.2.3 Iceland...368 12.2.4 Denmark...370 12.2.5 Canada...371 12.2.6 United States...373 12.3 Maritime Boundaries...374 12.3.1 The Russia/Norway Boundary...374 12.3.2 The Norway/Iceland Boundary...375 12.3.3 The United States/Russia Boundary...376
CONTENTS ix 12.3.4 The Denmark/Norway Boundary...377 12.3.5 The Denmark/Iceland Boundary...378 12.3.6 The Canada/Denmark Boundary...378 12.3.7 The Canada/United States Boundary...379 12.3.8 The Canada/Russia Boundary...381 12.3.9 The Denmark/Russia Boundary...382 12.4 The Passages...382 12.4.1 The Northwest Passage...383 12.4.1.1 The SS Manhattan...383 12.4.1.2 The Canadian Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act...384 12.4.1.3 Historic Internal Waters?...384 12.4.1.4 The Polar Sea...385 12.4.1.5 The Straight Baselines...385 12.4.1.6 The 1988 Agreement...386 12.4.1.7 September 11, 2001, and After...387 12.4.1.8 Would Recognition Create a Precedent?...387 12.4.1.9 An International Strait before 1985?...390 12.4.1.10 A Compromise for an Almost Unique Waterway...392 12.4.2 The Northeast Passage...392 12.4.2.1 Russian Internal Waters...393 12.4.2.2 Russian Straight Baselines...394 12.4.2.3 The 1989 Joint US/USSR Uniform Interpretation...396 12.4.2.4 Recent Legislation...397 12.4.2.5 Increasing Transits...399 GENERAL CONCLUSION THE FUTURE OF THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF THE SEA...403 CHRONOLOGY...427 BIBLIOGRAPHY...451 TABLE OF TREATIES AND OTHER INSTRUMENTS...489 TABLE OF CASES...523 INDEX...533