Advanced Chemistry in Creation, 2 nd Edition Table of Contents MODULE #1: Units, Chemical Equations, and Stoichiometry Revisited... 1 Introduction... 1 Units Revisited... 1 A New Look at Chemical Equations... 4 A New Look At Hess s Law... 7 Stoichiometry and Limiting Reactants... 14 Experiment 1.1: The Strength of Household Ammonia... 20 Stoichiometry, Percent Yield, and Multiple Reactions... 22 MODULE #2: The Atom Revisited... 35 Introduction... 35 The Atom What a Bohr!... 35 Experiment 2.1: Colors in Chemistry... 36 A Detailed Look at the Bohr Model... 37 The Bohr Model and Atomic Spectra... 43 The Size of an Atom... 48 Moving From the Bohr Model to the Quantum Mechanical Model... 50 Determining Quantum Numbers for Individual Electrons... 54 MODULE #3: The Electronic Structure of Molecules... 67 Introduction... 67 How Atoms Share Electrons... 68 Hybrid Orbitals... 68 Molecular Orbitals - Part 1... 73 Molecular Orbitals Part 2: The Rule-Breakers... 81 Explanation of Experiment 2.1 Plus Another Experiment... 87 Experiment 3.1: The Effect of Solvent on the Color of a Substance... 88 MODULE #4: Intermolecular Forces and the Phases of Matter... 95 Introduction... 95 Experiment 4.1: The Kinetic Theory of Matter... 95 Applying the Kinetic Theory of Matter to Phase Changes... 96 Experiment 4.2: Separating a Mixture Using Sublimation... 100 The Different Types of Van Der Waals Forces... 101 Cohesive Forces, Adhesive Forces, and Surface Tension... 109 Phase Diagrams... 110 Crystals and Unit Cells... 114 Experiment 4.3: Identifying Unit Cells... 116 Metallic Crystals... 117 Determining Density from Crystal Structure... 120 Ionic Crystals... 122 iv
MODULE #5: Solutions and Colloids... 129 Introduction... 129 A Little Bit of Review... 129 Relating Units of Concentration... 132 Solubility, van der Waals Forces, and Entropy... 133 Temperature and Solubility... 138 Experiment 5.1: A Solubility Curve... 138 The Effect of a Solute on a Solvent s Phase Diagram... 144 Separating Solute From Solvent in a Solution... 146 Experiment 5.2: A Simple Distillation... 147 Experiment 5.3: Paper Chromatography... 149 Colloids... 151 Experiment 5.4: Forming Colloidal Particles with Soap... 153 MODULE #6: Solutions and Equilibrium... 161 Introduction... 161 A Little Bit of Review... 161 The Equilibrium Constant and Gibbs Free Energy... 163 Solubility Equilibria... 167 The Common Ion Effect... 172 Experiment 6.1: The Common Ion Effect... 172 Precipitation from Solution... 179 Experiment 6.2: Precipitation... 179 Experiment 6.3: Making Your Own Precipitate... 182 MODULE #7: Acid/Base Equilibria... 195 Introduction... 195 A Little Bit of Review... 195 The Real Meaning Behind the ph Scale... 198 Calculating the ph of a Solution of an Acid or Base... 201 Experiment 7.1: Calculating Concentration from ph... 206 Amphiprotic Substances and Their Behavior... 209 Diprotic and Triprotic Acids... 211 Alternate Definitions of Acids and Bases... 216 MODULE #8: More on Equilibrium... 227 Introduction... 227 Buffer Solutions... 227 Experiment 8.1: The Bicarbonate Buffer... 227 The ph of a Buffer... 232 The Common Ion Effect and ph... 239 The Technique of Successive Approximations... 242 Other Equilibrium Situations... 246 v
MODULE #9: Electrochemistry Part 1... 263 Introduction... 263 A Little Bit of Review... 263 Analyzing Redox Reactions... 267 Experiment 9.1: A Redox Reaction between Copper and Zinc... 267 Galvanic Cells... 270 Experiment 9.2: Making Your Own Galvanic Cell... 278 The Nernst Equation... 280 Electrolytic Cells... 282 Experiment 9.3: The Electrolysis of Copper Sulfate... 282 Faraday s Law of Electrolysis... 288 MODULE #10: Electrochemistry Part 2... 301 Introduction... 301 Balancing Redox Reactions The Half-Reaction Method... 301 Balancing Redox Reactions - The Change in Oxidation Number Method... 309 The Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents... 311 Experiment 10.1: Predicting Redox Reactions... 317 Relating Redox Potential to G and the Equilibrium Constant... 318 Corrosion... 321 MODULE #11: Chemical Kinetics... 331 Introduction... 331 A Little Bit of Review... 331 Experiment 11.1: The Rate of an Iodine Clock Reaction... 333 Another Way to Look at The Kinetics of a Chemical Reaction... 338 First-Order Chemical Reactions... 340 Second-Order Reactions... 343 The Collision Theory of Chemical Kinetics... 344 Reaction Mechanisms and Reaction Rates... 348 MODULE #12: An Introduction to Organic Chemistry... 361 Introduction... 361 Saturated Hydrocarbons... 361 Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons... 368 Alkenes and Alkynes... 373 Aromatic Compounds... 375 Petroleum... 378 Polymers... 380 Experiment 12.1: Investigating the Properties of Polyethylene... 380 Experiment 12.2: Making Slime... 381 Experiment 12.3: Cross-Linking a Polymer... 382 vi
MODULE #13: Functional Groups in Organic Chemistry... 389 Introduction... 389 Alcohols... 390 Experiment 13.1: Yeast and the Fermentation Process... 391 Ethers... 394 Aldehydes and Ketones... 397 Carboxylic Acids... 398 Esters... 400 Amino Acids and Proteins... 403 Carbohydrates... 407 Experiment 13.2: The Hydrolysis of Sucrose... 410 Summing Up Organic and Biochemistry... 412 MODULE #14: Nuclear Chemistry... 417 Introduction... 417 Binding Energy... 417 The Nuclear Force... 421 The Stability of a Nucleus... 422 Radioactivity... 423 Other Forms of Radioactivity... 428 The Rate of Radioactive Decay... 429 The Dangers of Radioactivity... 430 Radiometric Dating... 432 Varying Radioactive Half-Lives... 435 Other uses of Radioactivity and Ionizing Radiation... 438 Nuclear Reactions... 440 Using Nuclear Reactions to Make Energy... 444 MODULE #15: Review - Part 1... 451 Introduction... 451 Review Questions and Problems... 451 MODULE #16: Review - Part 2... 461 Introduction... 461 More Review Questions and Problems... 461 Summing It All Up... 469 GLOSSARY... 471 APPENDICIES... 485 INDEX... 521 vii
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