Chapter 2: Protecting the zone Layer Why do we need to do to protect the ozone layer? Isn t ozone hazardous to human health? Why is the ozone layer getting smaller? What can we do (if anything) to help stop the depletion of our ozone layer?
zone Formation Energy + 3 2 2 3 Energy must be absorbed (endothermic) for this reaction to occur. zone is an allotropic form of oxygen. An allotrope is two or more forms of the same element that differ in their chemical structure and therefore their properties. Element Allotropes oxygen 2, 3 carbon graphite, diamond, buckminister fullerenes 2.1
8 16.00 Atomic number (Z) Mass number (A) -The number of protons. (nuclear charge) -The sum of the protons and neutrons. 2.2 2.2
The electrons in the outermost energy levels are called valence electrons. The group number (of the representative elements) on the periodic table tells you the number of valence electrons. Group 1A: 1 valence electron 1A Group 3A: 3 valence electrons 8A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 2.2
Isotopes are two or more forms of the same element (same number of protons) whose atoms differ in number of neutrons, and hence in mass. Isotopes of carbon: C-12, C-13, C-14 also written as: 12 C 13 C 14 C 2.2
Representing molecules with Lewis structures: Consider water, 2 : 1. Find sum of valence electrons: 1 atom x 6 valence electrons per atom = 6 + 2 atoms x 1 valence electron per atom = +2 8 valence electrons 2. Arrange the electrons in pairs; use whatever electron pairs needed to connect the atoms, then distribute the remaining electron pairs so that the octet rule is satisfied: lone pair bonding pair 2.3
Representing molecules with Lewis structures: Typical valence for selected atoms = the # of bonds an atom typically forms Element, X (X= F, Cl, Br, I) Typical valence Classification 1 monovalent 2 divalent N 3 trivalent C 4 tetravalent 2.3
Representing molecules with Lewis structures: Multiple bonds C C Double bond Triple bond ccasionally a single Lewis structure does not adequately represent the true structure of a molecule, so we use resonance forms: N N N 2.3
Try these; draw valid Lewis structures for: N 3 N Can you draw other valid Lewis structures for N 3? C 2 C 2 S S Sulfur is under oxygen; think of 2 Sulfur is in the 3 rd period: it can have an expanded octet 2 S 4 S S S 2.3
The Nature of Light Low E igh E Wavelength (l) = distance traveled between successive peaks (nm). Frequency (n) = number of waves passing a fixed point in one second (waves/s or 1/s or s -1 or z). 2.4
The Electromagnetic Spectrum The various types of radiation seem different to our senses, yet they differ only in their respective l and n. 2.4
Visible: l = 700-400 nm R Y G B I V Decreasing wavelength Infrared (IR) : longest of the visible spectrum, heat ray absorptions cause molecules to bend and stretch. Microwaves: cause molecules to rotate. Short l range: includes UV (ultraviolet), X-rays, and gamma rays. 2.4
The wavelength and frequency of electromagnetic radiation are related by: c = ln where c = 3 x 10 8 m/s (the speed of light) The energy of a photon of electromagnetic radiation is calculated by: E = h n where h = 6.63 x 10-34 J. s (Plank s constant) Energy and frequency are directly relatedhigher frequency means higher energy. 2.5
What is the energy associated with a photon of light with a wavelength of 240 nm? C = ln E = h n n = C l n = 3 x 10 8 m/s 10-9 m = 1.3 x 10 15 s -1 240 nm x nm E = (6.63 x 10-34 J. s) (1.3 x 10 15 s -1 ) E = 8.6 x 10-19 J UV radiation has sufficient energy to cause molecular bonds to break 2.5
2.6
The Chapman Cycle l A steady state condition l 2.6
Biological Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation The consequences depend primarily on: 1. The energy associated with the radiation. 2. The length of time of the exposure. 3. The sensitivity of the organism to that radiation. The most deadly form of skin cancer, melanoma, is linked with the intensity of UV radiation and the latitude at which you live. An Australian product uses smart bottle technology; bottle color changes from white to blue when exposed to UV light. 2.7
ow CFCs Interact with zone First, UV radiation breaks a carbon-halogen bond: Photon (l < 220 nm) + CCl 2 F 2. CClF2 + Cl. (free radicals) 2.9
The chlorine radical attacks an 3 molecule: 2Cl. + 2 3 2Cl. + 2 2 Then two chlorine monoxide radicals combine: 2 Cl. ClCl The ClCl molecule then decomposes: UV photon + ClCl Cl. + Cl. Cl. Cl. + 2 The net reaction is: 2 3 3 2 The Cl. radicals are free to attack more 3 The Cl. radicals are both consumed and generated; they act as catalysts 2.9
Experimental analyses show that as Cl. concentrations increase, ozone concentration decreases. 2.9
CFCs are alternatives to CFCs: they decompose more readily in the troposphere so they will not accumulate to the same extent in the stratosphere. 2.9