Chapter 27 Prokaryotes PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition Neil Campbell and Jane Reece Lectures by Chris Romero
Overview: They re (Almost) Everywhere! Most prokaryotes are microscopic But what they lack in size they more than make up for in numbers The number of prokaryotes in a single handful of fertile soil Is greater than the number of people who have ever lived
Prokaryotes thrive almost everywhere Including places too acidic, too salty, too cold, or too hot for most other organisms Figure 27.1
Biologists are discovering That these organisms have an astonishing genetic diversity
Concept 27.1: Structural, functional, and genetic adaptations contribute to prokaryotic success Most prokaryotes are unicellular Although some species form colonies
Prokaryotic cells have a variety of shapes The three most common of which are spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli), and spirals Figure 27.2a c 1 m 2 m 5 m (a) Spherical (cocci) (b) Rod-shaped (bacilli) (c) Spiral
Cell-Surface Structures One of the most important features of nearly all prokaryotic cells Is their cell wall, which maintains cell shape, provides physical protection, and prevents the cell from bursting in a hypotonic environment
Using a technique called the Gram stain Scientists can classify many bacterial species into two groups based on cell wall composition, Grampositive and Gram-negative Lipopolysaccharide Cell wall Peptidoglycan layer Plasma membrane Cell wall Outer membrane Peptidoglycan layer Plasma membrane Protein Protein Grampositive bacteria Gramnegative bacteria (a) Gram-positive. Gram-positive bacteria have a cell wall with a large amount of peptidoglycan that traps the violet dye in the cytoplasm. The alcohol rinse does not remove the violet dye, which masks the added red dye. Figure 27.3a, b 20 m (b) Gram-negative. Gram-negative bacteria have less peptidoglycan, and it is located in a layer between the plasma membrane and an outer membrane. The violet dye is easily rinsed from the cytoplasm, and the cell appears pink or red after the red dye is added.
The cell wall of many prokaryotes Is covered by a capsule, a sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein 200 nm Capsule Figure 27.4
Some prokaryotes have fimbriae and pili Which allow them to stick to their substrate or other individuals in a colony Fimbriae Figure 27.5 200 nm
Motility Most motile bacteria propel themselves by flagella Which are structurally and functionally different from eukaryotic flagella Flagellum Filament 50 nm Cell wall Hook Basal apparatus Figure 27.6 Plasma membrane
In a heterogeneous environment, many bacteria exhibit taxis The ability to move toward or away from certain stimuli
Internal and Genomic Organization Prokaryotic cells Usually lack complex compartmentalization
Some prokaryotes Do have specialized membranes that perform metabolic functions 0.2 m 1 m Respiratory membrane Thylakoid membranes Figure 27.7a, b (a) Aerobic prokaryote (b) Photosynthetic prokaryote
The typical prokaryotic genome Is a ring of DNA that is not surrounded by a membrane and that is located in a nucleoid region Chromosome Figure 27.8 1 m
Some species of bacteria Also have smaller rings of DNA called plasmids
Reproduction and Adaptation Prokaryotes reproduce quickly by binary fission And can divide every 1 3 hours
Many prokaryotes form endospores Which can remain viable in harsh conditions for centuries Endospore Figure 27.9 0.3 m
Rapid reproduction and horizontal gene transfer Facilitate the evolution of prokaryotes to changing environments
Concept 27.2: A great diversity of nutritional and metabolic adaptations have evolved in prokaryotes Examples of all four models of nutrition are found among prokaryotes Photoautotrophy Chemoautotrophy Photoheterotrophy Chemoheterotrophy
Major nutritional modes in prokaryotes Table 27.1
Metabolic Relationships to Oxygen Prokaryotic metabolism Also varies with respect to oxygen
Obligate aerobes Require oxygen Facultative anaerobes Can survive with or without oxygen Obligate anaerobes Are poisoned by oxygen
Nitrogen Metabolism Prokaryotes can metabolize nitrogen In a variety of ways In a process called nitrogen fixation Some prokaryotes convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia
Metabolic Cooperation Cooperation between prokaryotes Allows them to use environmental resources they could not use as individual cells
In the cyanobacterium Anabaena Photosynthetic cells and nitrogen-fixing cells exchange metabolic products Photosynthetic cells Heterocyst Figure 27.10 20 m
1 m In some prokaryotic species Metabolic cooperation occurs in surfacecoating colonies called biofilms Figure 27.11
Concept 27.3: Molecular systematics is illuminating prokaryotic phylogeny Until the late 20th century Systematists based prokaryotic taxonomy on phenotypic criteria Applying molecular systematics to the investigation of prokaryotic phylogeny Has produced dramatic results
Lessons from Molecular Systematics Molecular systematics Is leading to a phylogenetic classification of prokaryotes Is allowing systematists to identify major new clades
A tentative phylogeny of some of the major taxa of prokaryotes based on molecular systematics Domain Bacteria Domain Archaea Domain Eukarya Proteobacteria Figure 27.12 Universal ancestor
Bacteria Diverse nutritional types Are scattered among the major groups of bacteria The two largest groups are The proteobacteria and the Gram-positive bacteria
2 m 10 m 5 m 0.5 m 1 m 2.5 m Proteobacteria Rhizobium (arrows) inside a root cell of a legume (TEM) Nitrosomonas (colorized TEM) Chromatium; the small globules are sulfur wastes (LM) Fruiting bodies of Chondromyces crocatus, a myxobacterium (SEM) Bdellovibrio bacteriophorus Attacking a larger bacterium (colorized TEM) Figure 27.13 Helicobacter pylori (colorized TEM).
50 m 5 m 1 m 5 m 2.5 m Chlamydias, spirochetes, Gram-positive bacteria, and cyanobacteria Chlamydia (arrows) inside an animal cell (colorized TEM) Leptospira, a spirochete (colorized TEM) Streptomyces, the source of many antibiotics (colorized SEM) Hundreds of mycoplasmas covering a human fibroblast cell (colorized SEM) Figure 27.13 Two species of Oscillatoria, filamentous cyanobacteria (LM)
Archaea Archaea share certaintraits with bacteria And other traits with eukaryotes Table 27.2
Some archaea Live in extreme environments Extreme thermophiles Thrive in very hot environments
Extreme halophiles Live in high saline environments Figure 27.14
Methanogens Live in swamps and marshes Produce methane as a waste product
Concept 27.4: Prokaryotes play crucial roles in the biosphere Prokaryotes are so important to the biosphere that if they were to disappear The prospects for any other life surviving would be dim
Chemical Recycling Prokaryotes play a major role In the continual recycling of chemical elements between the living and nonliving components of the environment in ecosystems
Chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes function as decomposers Breaking down corpses, dead vegetation, and waste products Nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes Add usable nitrogen to the environment
Symbiotic Relationships Many prokaryotes Live with other organisms in symbiotic relationships such as mutualism and commensalism Figure 27.15
Other types of prokaryotes Live inside hosts as parasites
Concept 27.5: Prokaryotes have both harmful and beneficial impacts on humans Some prokaryotes are human pathogens But many others have positive interactions with humans
Pathogenic Prokaryotes Prokaryotes cause about half of all human diseases Lyme disease is an example Figure 27.16 5 µm
Pathogenic prokaryotes typically cause disease By releasing exotoxins or endotoxins Many pathogenic bacteria Are potential weapons of bioterrorism
Prokaryotes in Research and Technology Experiments using prokaryotes Have led to important advances in DNA technology
Prokaryotes are the principal agents in bioremediation The use of organisms to remove pollutants from the environment Figure 27.17
Prokaryotes are also major tools in Mining The synthesis of vitamins Production of antibiotics, hormones, and other products