The Atmosphere Earth is surrounded by a mixture of gases known as the Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other gases are all parts of this mixture. Earth s atmosphere changes constantly as these gases are added and removed. For example, animals remove oxygen from the atmosphere when they breathe in and add carbon dioxide when they breathe out. Plants take in carbon dioxide and add oxygen to the atmosphere when they produce food. Gases can be added to and removed from the atmosphere in ways other than through living organisms. A volcanic eruption adds gases. A vehicle both adds and removes gases. The atmosphere also insulates Earth s surface. This insulation slows the rate at which the Earth s surface loses heat. The atmosphere keeps Earth at temperatures at which living things can survive. Composition of the Atmosphere Figure 2.1 shows the percentages of gases that make up Earth s Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of the Earth s It enters the atmosphere when volcanoes erupt and when dead plants and animals decay. Oxygen, the second most abundant gas in Earth s atmosphere, is primarily produced by plants and algae. Other gases, including argon, carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor, make up the rest of the In addition to gases, the atmosphere contains many types of tiny, solid particles, or atmospheric dust. Atmospheric dust is mainly soil but includes salt, ash from fires, volcanic ash, particulate matter from combustion, skin, hair, bits of clothing, pollen, bacteria and viruses, and microscopic particles and liquid droplets called aerosols. Section 2 Objectives Describe the composition of Earth s Describe the layers of Earth s Explain three mechanisms of heat transfer in Earth s Explain the greenhouse effect. Key Terms atmosphere troposphere stratosphere ozone radiation conduction convection greenhouse effect NOAA/Department of Commerce/NOAA Central Library U Air Pressure The atmosphere is pulled toward Earth s surface by gravity. As a result of the pull of gravity, the atmosphere is denser near Earth s surface. Most of the mass of Earth s atmospheric gases is located within 30 km of our planet s surface. Because gravity pulls the molecules of air downwards, the amount of air decreases at higher altitudes. The air also becomes less dense as elevation increases, so breathing at higher elevations is more difficult. Figure 2.1 Physical and Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere Scientists on board a research plane from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admini stration (NOAA) are making measurements of temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, and wind speed. Nitrogen and oxygen make up 99 percent of the composition of the Oxygen 21% Other 1% Nitrogen 78% Chapter 3: The Dynamic Earth 67
Layers of the Atmosphere The atmosphere is divided into four layers based on temperature changes that occur at different distances above the Earth s surface. Figure 2.2 shows the four layers of Earth s The Troposphere The atmospheric layer nearest Earth s surface is the troposphere. The troposphere extends to about 18 km above Earth s surface. Almost all of the weather occurs in this layer. The troposphere is Earth s densest atmospheric layer. Temperature decreases as altitude increases in the troposphere, as shown in Figure 2.2. Figure 2.2 0 Pressure (Pa) 2.0 3 10 4 6.0 3 10 4 1.0 3 10 5 Atmospheric Layers The layers of the atmosphere differ in temperature and pressure. 600 500 100 Thermosphere 90 Altitude (km) 80 70 60 Mesosphere Temperature 50 40 30 20 Stratosphere Pressure Ozone layer 10 0 Troposphere 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 Temperature ( C) 68 Unit 1: Introduction to Environmental Science
Figure 2.3 The Tropopause This sunrise scene that was taken from space captures the tropopause, the transitional zone that separates the troposphere (yellow layer) from the stratosphere (white layer). The tropopause is the illuminated brown layer. Figure 2.4 Auroras The aurora borealis, or Northern Lights, can be seen in the skies around Earth s North Pole. The Stratosphere Above the troposphere is the stratosphere. The stratosphere, separated from the troposphere by the tropopause, shown in Figure 2.3, extends from about 18 km to an altitude of about 50 km. Temperatures rise as altitude increases because ozone in the stratosphere absorbs the sun s ultraviolet (UV) energy and warms the air. Ozone, O 3, is a molecule made up of three oxygen atoms. Almost all the ozone in the atmosphere is concentrated in the ozone layer in the stratosphere. Ozone reduces the amount of harmful UV radiation that reaches Earth. (tl) NASA; (tr) SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc. The Mesosphere The layer above the stratosphere is the mesosphere. This layer extends to an altitude of about 80 km. The mesosphere is the coldest layer of the Its temperatures have been measured as low as -93 C. The Thermosphere Farthest from Earth s surface is the thermosphere. In the thermosphere, nitrogen and oxygen absorb solar radiation, resulting in temperatures above 2,000 C. Despite these high temperatures, the thermosphere would not feel hot to us. Air particles that strike one another transfer heat. The air in the thermosphere is so thin that air particles rarely collide, so little heat is transferred. Nitrogen and oxygen atoms in the lower region of the thermosphere (about 80 km to 550 km above Earth s surface) absorb harmful solar radiation, such as x-rays and gamma rays. This absorption causes atoms to become electrically charged. Electri cally charged atoms are called ions. The lower thermosphere is called the ionosphere. Sometimes ions radiate energy as light. This light often glows in spectacular colors in the night skies near the Earth s North and South Poles, as shown in Figure 2.4. ECOFACT The Mesosphere In geology, the term mesosphere, which means middle sphere, refers to the 2,550 km thick physical layer of the Earth that lies below the asthenosphere. The mesosphere is also the name of the atmospheric layer that extends from 50 to 80 km above Earth s surface. Check for Understanding Infer How does ozone in the stratosphere affect life on the Earth s surface? Chapter 3: The Dynamic Earth 69
QUICKLAB The Heat Is On! Procedure 1. Select 6 places in your classroom to measure the air temperature. 2. Choose a spot near the ceiling, one near the floor, one near a dark-colored surface, one near a light-colored surface, and two other places, spaced around the room. 3. Write a hypothesis explaining why temperatures might vary from place to place within the room. 4. Construct a data table to record your measurements. 5. Measure the temperatures (in C) in all six areas. Analysis 1. How is energy being transferred within the room? If more than one mechanism is a factor, explain. 2. Explain the reasons behind any differences you saw. Energy in the Atmosphere As shown in Figure 2.5, energy from the sun is transferred in Earth s atmosphere by three mechanisms: radiation, convection, and conduction. Radiation is the transfer of energy as electromagnetic waves. When you stand before a fire or a bed of coals, the warmth you feel has reached you by radiation. Conduction is the transfer of energy in the form of heat from a warmer object to a colder object when the objects are placed in direct physical contact. Convection is the transfer of energy that takes place when variations in temperature move the matter making up air. For example, if you live in a colder climate, the heating vents in your home are probably on or near the floor, so that the house will warm as the air rises upwards. Warming of the Atmosphere Solar energy reaches Earth as electromagnetic radiation, which includes visible light, infrared radiation, and ultraviolet light. Our planet only receives about two-billionths of this energy. However, this seemingly small amount of radiation contains a tremendous amount of energy. As shown in Figure 2.5, about half of the solar energy that enters the atmosphere passes through and is absorbed by Earth s surface. The rest is absorbed or reflected in the atmosphere by clouds, gases, and dust, or it is reflected by Earth s surface. On a sunny day, rocks may become too hot to touch. If Earth s surface continually absorbed energy, it would get hotter and hotter. This does not happen, because the oceans and the land radiate some of the energy they have absorbed back into the Figure 2.5 Thermal Radiation Three important mechanisms responsible for transferring energy in the atmosphere are radiation, conduction, and convection. 70
You may have noticed that dark-colored objects become much hotter in the sun than light-colored objects. Dark-colored objects absorb more solar radiation than light-colored objects, so dark-colored objects have more energy to release as heat. Because of the dark color of street and parking lot surfaces, the temperature in cities is higher than the temperature in the surrounding countryside. The Movement of Energy in the Atmosphere Air that is constantly moving upward, downward, or sideways causes Earth s weather. In the troposphere, currents of less dense air, warmed by the Earth s surface, rise into the atmosphere, and currents of denser cold air sink toward the ground. As a current of air rises into the atmosphere, it begins to cool and condense. The air current sinks instead of continuing to rise. So, the air current moves back toward Earth s surface until it is warmed, becomes less dense, and begins to rise again. This continual process, called a convection current, moves the air in a circular pattern. A convection current can be seen in Figure 2.5. ECOFACT Energy in Ecosystems Just as in the atmosphere, energy flows within ecosystems through radiation, conduction, and convection. For example, energy enters an ecosystem through radiation from the sun as organisms use sunlight to make sugars through the process of photosynthesis. You will learn about other ways in which energy flows through ecosystems in Chapter 5. Check for Understanding Explain Why does cool air sink and warm air rise in the atmosphere? 5% reflected by the Earth s surface Solar Energy that Reaches Earth 20% absorbed by ozone, clouds, and atmospheric gases 50% absorbed by the Earth s surface 25% scattered and reflected by clouds and air Chapter 3: The Dynamic Earth 71
Figure 2.6 The Greenhouse Effect The gases in the atmosphere act like a layer of glass. Both allow solar energy to pass through. But glass and some of the gases in the atmosphere absorb energy and stop it from escaping into space. critical thinking Explain What is the relationship between the greenhouse effect and global climate change? FieldStudy Go to Appendix B to find the field study Detecting CO 2 The Greenhouse Effect The gases in Earth s atmosphere act like the glass in the car shown in Figure 2.6. Sunlight that penetrates Earth s atmosphere warms the surface and lower atmosphere of the Earth. The process in which greenhouse gases absorb and reradiate infrared radiation near the Earth is known as the greenhouse effect. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would be too cold for life to exist. The gases in our atmosphere that trap heat are called greenhouse gases. None of these have a high concentration in Earth s The most abundant greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. The amounts of these gases vary considerably as a result of natural and industrial processes. Many scientists associate the addition of these gases from industry with global climate change. Section 2 Formative Assessment Reviewing Main Ideas 1. Describe the composition of Earth s 2. Describe a characteristic of each layer of the 3. Identify the three mechanisms of energy transfer in Earth s 4. Describe the role of greenhouse gases in Earth s Critical Thinking 5. Analyzing Processes Write a paragraph that explains why Earth s atmosphere becomes less dense with increasing altitude above Earth. 6. Analyzing Processes How does human activity change some greenhouse-gas levels? 72 Unit 1: Introduction to Environmental Science