Preface p. xvii Introduction p. 1 Compression Techniques p. 3 Lossless Compression p. 4 Lossy Compression p. 5 Measures of Performance p. 5 Modeling and Coding p. 6 Summary p. 10 Projects and Problems p. 11 Mathematical Preliminaries for Lossless Compression p. 13 Overview p. 13 A Brief Introduction to Information Theory p. 13 Derivation of Average Information p. 18 Models p. 23 Physical Models p. 23 Probability Models p. 23 Markov Models p. 24 Composite Source Model p. 27 Coding p. 27 Uniquely Decodable Codes p. 28 Prefix Codes p. 31 The Kraft-McMillan Inequality p. 32 Algorithmic Information Theory p. 35 Minimum Description Length Principle p. 36 Summary p. 37 Projects and Problems p. 38 Huffman Coding p. 41 Overview p. 41 The Huffman Coding Algorithm p. 41 Minimum Variance Huffman Codes p. 46 Optimality of Huffman Codes p. 48 Length of Huffman Codes p. 49 Extended Huffman Codes p. 51 Nonbinary Huffman Codes p. 55 Adaptive Huffman Coding p. 58 Update Procedure p. 59 Encoding Procedure p. 62 Decoding Procedure p. 63 Golomb Codes p. 65 Rice Codes p. 67 CCSDS Recommendation for Lossless Compression p. 67
Tunstall Codes p. 69 Applications of Huffman Coding p. 72 Lossless Image Compression p. 72 Text Compression p. 74 Audio Compression p. 75 Summary p. 77 Projects and Problems p. 77 Arithmetic Coding p. 81 Overview p. 81 Introduction p. 81 Coding a Sequence p. 83 Generating a Tag p. 84 Deciphering the Tag p. 91 Generating a Binary Code p. 92 Uniqueness and Efficiency of the Arithmetic Code p. 93 Algorithm Implementation p. 96 Integer Implementation p. 102 Comparison of Huffman and Arithmetic Coding p. 109 Adaptive Arithmetic Coding p. 112 Applications p. 112 Summary p. 113 Projects and Problems p. 114 Dictionary Techniques p. 117 Overview p. 117 Introduction p. 117 Static Dictionary p. 118 Digram Coding p. 119 Adaptive Dictionary p. 121 The LZ77 Approach p. 121 The LZ78 Approach p. 125 Applications p. 133 File Compression-UNIX compress p. 133 Image Compression-The Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) p. 133 Image Compression-Portable Network Graphics (PNG) p. 134 Compression over Modems-V.42 bis p. 136 Summary p. 138 Projects and Problems p. 139 Context-Based Compression p. 141 Overview p. 141 Introduction p. 141 Prediction with Partial Match (ppm) p. 143
The Basic Algorithm p. 143 The Escape Symbol p. 149 Length of Context p. 150 The Exclusion Principle p. 151 The Burrows-Wheeler Transform p. 152 Move-to-Front Coding p. 156 Associative Coder of Buyanovsky (ACB) p. 157 Dynamic Markov Compression p. 158 Summary p. 160 Projects and Problems p. 161 Lossless Image Compression p. 163 Overview p. 163 Introduction p. 163 The Old JPEG Standard p. 164 CALIC p. 166 JPEG-LS p. 170 Multiresolution Approaches p. 172 Progressive Image Transmission p. 173 Facsimile Encoding p. 178 Run-Length Coding p. 179 CCITT Group 3 and 4-Recommendations T.4 and T.6 p. 180 JBIG p. 183 JBIG2-T.88 p. 189 MRC-T.44 p. 190 Summary p. 193 Projects and Problems p. 193 Mathematical Preliminaries for Lossy Coding p. 195 Overview p. 195 Introduction p. 195 Distortion Criteria p. 197 The Human Visual System p. 199 Auditory Perception p. 200 Information Theory Revisited p. 201 Conditional Entropy p. 202 Average Mutual Information p. 204 Differential Entropy p. 205 Rate Distortion Theory p. 208 Models p. 215 Probability Models p. 216 Linear System Models p. 218 Physical Models p. 223
Summary p. 224 Projects and Problems p. 224 Scalar Quantization p. 227 Overview p. 227 Introduction p. 227 The Quantization Problem p. 228 Uniform Quantizer p. 233 Adaptive Quantization p. 244 Forward Adaptive Quantization p. 244 Backward Adaptive Quantization p. 246 Nonuniform Quantization p. 253 pdf-optimized Quantization p. 253 Companded Quantization p. 257 Entropy-Coded Quantization p. 264 Entropy Coding of Lloyd-Max Quantizer Outputs p. 265 Entropy-Constrained Quantization p. 265 High-Rate Optimum Quantization p. 266 Summary p. 269 Projects and Problems p. 270 Vector Quantization p. 273 Overview p. 273 Introduction p. 273 Advantages of Vector Quantization over Scalar Quantization p. 276 The Linde-Buzo-Gray Algorithm p. 282 Initializing the LBG Algorithm p. 287 The Empty Cell Problem p. 294 Use of LBG for Image Compression p. 294 Tree-Structured Vector Quantizers p. 299 Design of Tree-Structured Vector Quantizers p. 302 Pruned Tree-Structured Vector Quantizers p. 303 Structured Vector Quantizers p. 303 Pyramid Vector Quantization p. 305 Polar and Spherical Vector Quantizers p. 306 Lattice Vector Quantizers p. 307 Variations on the Theme p. 311 Gain-Shape Vector Quantization p. 311 Mean-Removed Vector Quantization p. 312 Classified Vector Quantization p. 313 Multistage Vector Quantization p. 313 Adaptive Vector Quantization p. 315 Trellis-Coded Quantization p. 316
Summary p. 321 Projects and Problems p. 322 Differential Encoding p. 325 Overview p. 325 Introduction p. 325 The Basic Algorithm p. 328 Prediction in DPCM p. 332 Adaptive DPCM p. 337 Adaptive Quantization in DPCM p. 338 Adaptive Prediction in DPCM p. 339 Delta Modulation p. 342 Constant Factor Adaptive Delta Modulation (CFDM) p. 343 Continuously Variable Slope Delta Modulation p. 345 Speech Coding p. 345 G.726 p. 347 Image Coding p. 349 Summary p. 351 Projects and Problems p. 352 Mathematical Preliminaries for Transforms, Subbands, and Wavelets p. 355 Overview p. 355 Introduction p. 355 Vector Spaces p. 356 Dot or Inner Product p. 357 Vector Space p. 357 Subspace p. 359 Basis p. 360 Inner Product-Formal Definition p. 361 Orthogonal and Orthonormal Sets p. 361 Fourier Series p. 362 Fourier Transform p. 365 Parseval's Theorem p. 366 Modulation Property p. 366 Convolution Theorem p. 367 Linear Systems p. 368 Time Invariance p. 368 Transfer Function p. 368 Impulse Response p. 369 Filter p. 371 Sampling p. 372 Ideal Sampling-Frequency Domain View p. 373 Ideal Sampling-Time Domain View p. 375
Discrete Fourier Transform p. 376 Z-Transform p. 378 Tabular Method p. 381 Partial Fraction Expansion p. 382 Long Division p. 386 Z-Transform Properties p. 387 Discrete Convolution p. 387 Summary p. 389 Projects and Problems p. 390 Transform Coding p. 391 Overview p. 391 Introduction p. 391 The Transform p. 396 Transforms of Interest p. 400 Karhunen-Loeve Transform p. 401 Discrete Cosine Transform p. 402 Discrete Sine Transform p. 404 Discrete Walsh-Hadamard Transform p. 404 Quantization and Coding of Transform Coefficients p. 407 Application to Image Compression-JPEG p. 410 The Transform p. 410 Quantization p. 411 Coding p. 413 Application to Audio Compression-the MDCT p. 416 Summary p. 419 Projects and Problems p. 421 Subband Coding p. 423 Overview p. 423 Introduction p. 423 Filters p. 428 Some Filters Used in Subband Coding p. 432 The Basic Subband Coding Algorithm p. 436 Analysis p. 436 Quantization and Coding p. 437 Synthesis p. 437 Design of Filter Banks p. 438 Downsampling p. 440 Upsampling p. 443 Perfect Reconstruction Using Two-Channel Filter Banks p. 444 Two-Channel PR Quadrature Mirror Filters p. 447 Power Symmetric FIR Filters p. 449
M-Band QMF Filter Banks p. 451 The Polyphase Decomposition p. 454 Bit Allocation p. 459 Application to Speech Coding-G.722 p. 461 Application to Audio Coding-MPEG Audio p. 462 Application to Image Compression p. 463 Decomposing an Image p. 465 Coding the Subbands p. 467 Summary p. 470 Projects and Problems p. 471 Wavelet-Based Compression p. 473 Overview p. 473 Introduction p. 473 Wavelets p. 476 Multiresolution Analysis and the Scaling Function p. 480 Implementation Using Filters p. 486 Scaling and Wavelet Coefficients p. 488 Families of Wavelets p. 491 Image Compression p. 494 Embedded Zerotree Coder p. 497 Set Partitioning in Hierarchical Trees p. 505 JPEG 2000 p. 512 Summary p. 513 Projects and Problems p. 513 Audio Coding p. 515 Overview p. 515 Introduction p. 515 Spectral Masking p. 517 Temporal Masking p. 517 Psychoacoustic Model p. 518 MPEG Audio Coding p. 519 Layer I Coding p. 520 Layer II Coding p. 521 Layer III Coding-mp3 p. 522 MPEG Advanced Audio Coding p. 527 MPEG-2 AAC p. 527 MPEG-4 AAC p. 532 Dolby AC3 (Dolby Digital) p. 533 Bit Allocation p. 534 Other Standards p. 535 Summary p. 536
Analysis/Synthesis and Analysis by Synthesis Schemes p. 537 Overview p. 537 Introduction p. 537 Speech Compression p. 539 The Channel Vocoder p. 539 The Linear Predictive Coder (Government Standard LPC-10) p. 542 Code Excited Linear Predicton (CELP) p. 549 Sinusoidal Coders p. 552 Mixed Excitation Linear Prediction (MELP) p. 555 Wideband Speech Compression-ITU-T G.722.2 p. 558 Image Compression p. 559 Fractal Compression p. 560 Summary p. 568 Projects and Problems p. 569 Video Compression p. 571 Overview p. 571 Introduction p. 571 Motion Compensation p. 573 Video Signal Representation p. 576 ITU-T Recommendation H.261 p. 582 Motion Compensation p. 583 The Loop Filter p. 584 The Transform p. 586 Quantization and Coding p. 586 Rate Control p. 588 Model-Based Coding p. 588 Asymmetric Applications p. 590 The MPEG-1 Video Standard p. 591 The MPEG-2 Video Standard-H.262 p. 594 The Grand Alliance HDTV Proposal p. 597 ITU-T Recommendation H.263 p. 598 Unrestricted Motion Vector Mode p. 600 Syntax-Based Arithmetic Coding Mode p. 600 Advanced Prexiction Mode p. 600 PB-frames and Improved PB-frames Mode p. 600 Advanced Intra Coding Mode p. 600 Deblocking Filter Mode p. 601 Reference Picture Selection Mode p. 601 Temporal, SNP, and Spatial Scalability Mode p. 601 Reference Picture Resampling p. 601 Reduced-Resolution Update Mode p. 602
Alternative Inter VLC Mode p. 602 Modified Quantization Mode p. 602 Enhanced Reference Picture Selection Mode p. 603 ITU-T Recommendation H.264, MPEG-4 Part 10, Advanced Video Coding p. 603 Motion-Compensated PRediction p. 604 The Transform p. 605 Intra Prediction p. 605 Quantization p. 606 Coding p. 608 MPEG-4 Part 2 p. 609 packet Video p. 610 ATM Networks p. 610 Compression Issues in ATM Networks p. 611 Compression Algorithms for packet Video p. 612 Summary p. 613 Projects and Problems p. 614 Probability and Random Processes p. 615 Probability p. 615 Frequency of Occurrence p. 615 A Measure of Belief p. 616 The Axiomatic Approach p. 618 Random Variables p. 620 Distribution Functions p. 621 Expectation p. 623 Mean p. 624 Second Moment p. 625 Variance p. 625 Types of Distribution p. 625 Uniform Distribution p. 625 Gaussian Distribution p. 626 Laplacian Distribution p. 626 Gamma Distribution p. 626 Stochastic Process p. 626 Projects and Problems p. 629 A Brief Review of Matrix Concepts p. 631 A Matrix p. 631 Matrix Operations p. 632 The Root Lattices p. 637 Bibliography p. 639 Index p. 655 Table of Contents provided by Blackwell's Book Services and R.R. Bowker. Used with permission.