Alternating Current (AC) Circuits We have been talking about DC circuits Constant currents and voltages Resistors Linear equations Now we introduce AC circuits Time-varying currents and voltages Resistors, capacitors, inductors (coils) Linear differential equations 73
Recall water analogy for Ohm s law (a) Battery (b) Resistor 74
Now we add a steel tank with rubber sheet (a) Battery (b) Resistor (c) Capacitor 75
Water enters one side of the tank and leaves the other, distending but not crossing the sheet. At first, water seems to flow through tank. How to decrease capacitance of tank? Make rubber sheet (a) smaller or (b) thicker. 76
Charge, like water is practically incompressible, but within a small volume (closely spaced plates) charge can enter one side and leave the other, without flowing across the space between. The apparent flow of current through space between the plates (the displacement current ) led Maxwell to his equations governing EM waves. 77
Basic Laws of Capacitance Capacitance C relates charge Q to voltage V C = Q V Since Q = I dt, V = 1 C I dt I = C dv dt Capacitance has units of Farads, F = 1 A sec / V + _ 78
Charging a Capacitor with Battery V B Voltage across resistor to find current ( ) = V B V ( C t) I t R Basic law of capacitor ( ) = C dv ( t) C I t dt Differential Equation yields exponential diminishing returns as cap becomes charged V C V C ( ) ( t) + RC dv C t dt t ( ) = V B 1 e t RC = V B 79
What determines capacitance C? Area A of the plates Distance d between the plates Permittivity ε of the dielectric between plates. C = ε A d Alignment of dipoles within dielectric between plates increases capacitor s ability to store charge (capacitance). Permittivity of a vacuum ε 0 8.8541 10 12 F m 1. 80
Disk (Ceramic) Capacitor Non-polarized Low leakage High breakdown voltage ~ 5pF 0.1μF Electrolytic Capacitor High leakage Polarized Low breakdown voltage ~ 0.1μF 10,000μF Types of Capacitors Supercapacitor (Electrochemical Double Layer) New. Effective spacing between plates in nanometers. Many Farads! May power cars someday. 3 digits ABC = (AB plus C zeros) 682 = 6800 pf 104 = 100,000 pf = μ 81
Inductor (coil) Water Analogy inductance is like inertia/momentum of water in pipe with flywheel. heavier flywheel (coil wrapped around iron core) adds to inertia/momentum. 82
Joseph Henry 1797 1878 Invented insulation Permitted construction of much more powerful electromagnets. Derived mathematics for self-inductance Built early relays, used to give telegraph range Put Princeton Physics on the map 83
Basic Laws of Inductance Inductance L relates changes in the current to voltages induced by changes in the magnetic field produced by the current. I = 1 L V dt V = L di dt Inductance has units of Henries, H = 1 V sec / A. 84
What determines inductance L? Assume a solenoid (coil) Area A of the coil Number of turns N Length of the coil Permeability μ of the core L = µ N 2 A Permeability of a vacuum μ 0 1.2566 10 6 H m 1. 85
Energy Stored in Capacitor I = C dv dt P = VI = VC dv dt E = P dt E = C V dv E = 1 2 CV 2 86
Energy Stored in Caps and Coils Capacitors store potential energy in electric field E = 1 2 CV 2 independent of history Inductors store kinetic energy in magnetic field E = 1 2 L I 2 independent of history Resistors don t store energy at all! the energy is dissipated as power = V I 87
Generating Sparks What if you suddenly try to stop a current? V = L di dt goes to - when switch is opened. use diode to shunt current, protect switch. Nothing changes instantly in Nature. Spark coil used in early radio (Titanic). Tesla patented the spark plug. 88
Symmetry of Electromagnetism (from an electronics component point of view) I = C dv dt V = 1 C I dt V = L di dt I = 1 L V dt Only difference is no magnetic monopole. 89
Inductance adds like Resistance Series L S = L 1 + L 2 Parallel L P = 1 1 L 1 +1 L 2 90
Capacitance adds like Conductance Series C S = 1 1 C 1 +1 C 2 Parallel C P = C 1 + C 2 91
Distribution of charge and voltage on multiple capacitors To find the charge in capacitors in parallel Find total effective capacitance C Total Charge will be Q Total = C Total V Same voltage will be on all caps (Kirchoff s Voltage Law) Q Total = VC Total = Q 1 + Q 2 V = V 1 = V 2 Q 1 = VC 1 Q 2 = VC 2 Q Total distributed proportional to capacitance 92
Distribution of charge and voltage on multiple capacitors To find the voltage on capacitors in series Find total effective capacitance C Total Charge will be Q Total = C Total V Same charge will be on all caps (Kirchoff s Current Law) Q Total = VC Total Q Total = Q 1 = Q 2 V 1 = Q 1 C 1 = Q Total C 1 = C Total C 1 V V 2 = Q 2 C 2 = Q Total C 2 = C Total C 2 Voltage distributed inversely proportional to capacitance V 93
Lorenz Contraction Length of object observed in relative motion to the object is shorter than the object s length 0 in its own rest frame as velocity v approaches speed of light c. What is Magnetism? = 0 1 v 2 c 2 Thus electrons in Wire 1 see Wire 2 as negatively charged and repel it: Magnetism! 94
AC circuit analysis uses Sinusoids 95
Superposition of Sinusoids Adding two sinusoids of the same frequency, no matter what their amplitudes and phases, yields a sinusoid of the same frequency. Why? Trigonometry does not have an answer. Linear systems change only phase and amplitude New frequencies do not appear. 96
Sinusoids are projections of a unit vector spinning around the origin. 97
Derivative shifts 90 to the left Taking a second derivative inverts a sinusoid. 98
Hooke s Law F = ma F = kd d = +, a constant Sinusoids result when a function is proportional to its own negative second derivative. Pervasive in nature: swings, flutes, guitar strings, electron orbits, light waves, sound waves 99
Orbit of the Moon Hook s Law in 2D velocity is perpendicular to displacement acceleration is negative of displacement 100
Complex numbers Cartesian and Polar forms on complex plane. Not vectors, though they add like vectors. Can multiply two together (not so with vectors). 101
Complex Numbers How to find r 102
Phasor - Polar form of Complex Number 103
Cartesian and Polar forms (cont ) 104
Complex Conjugates 105
Multiplying two complex numbers rotates by each other s phase and scales by each other s magnitude. 106
Dividing two complex numbers rotates the phase backwards and scales as the quotient of the magnitudes. 107
How to simplify a complex number in the denominator this was + (wrong) rotate backwards real part imaginary part 108
Multiplying by j rotates any complex number 90 z = a + jb z = jz = b + ja z b im z This can be recognized as multiplication by a rotation matrix, where z = jz = a + j b re a a b = 0 1 1 0 a b Dot product projects point (a,b) onto rotated axes (circled). 109
Examples 110
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The squiggly bracket: not an algebraic expression. y itself is real: the coordinate on the imaginary axis 113
Rotating by + or - 90 114
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2π, not π, is the magic number 116
Now make the phasor spin at ω = 2π f Note: frequency can be negative; phasor can spin backwards. 117
Multiplying by j shifts the phase by 90 j = e jπ 2 θ = 90 solution to Hooke s Law Just like a sinusoid: shifts 90 with each derivative. 118
All algebraic operations work with complex numbers What does it mean to raise something to an imaginary power? Consider case of e./0 with ω = 1 Euler s Identity 119
Consider e jωt Its derivative de jωt dt graphically. = jωe jωt im jωe jωt e jωt re is rotated by 90 and scaled by ω at all times. Thus it spins in a circle with velocity ω, and since e jωt = 1 when t = 0, e jωt = cosωt + jsinωt Euler s Identity 120
Voltages and Currents are Real 121
Cosine is sum of 2 phasors 122
Sine is difference between 2 phasors 123
Trigonometry Revealed 124
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Complex Impedance - Capacitor represents orthogonal basis set 126
Complex Impedance - Inductor 127
Complex Impedance - Resistor 128
Impedance on the Complex Plane 129
Taxonomy of Impedance 130
Series Capacitors and Inductors Two capacitors in series: Z = 1 jωc 1 + 1 jωc 2 = C 1 + C 2 jωc 1 C 2 = jω 1 1 1 C 1 + 1 C 2 Two inductors in series: Z = jωl 1 + jωl 2 = jω ( L 1 + L ) 2 131
Parallel Capacitors and Inductors Two capacitors in parallel: Z = 1 jωc 1 + jωc 2 = 1 ( ) jω C 1 + C 2 Two inductors in parallel: Z = 1 1 + 1 jωl 1 jωl 2 = jω 1 1 + 1 L 1 L 2 132
Same rules as DC circuits now AC sources 133
Impedance of a Passive Branch RC circuit 134
LC circuit - Resonance At resonance, impedances add to zero and cancel. Analogous to spring and weight system Energy in passed between magnetic and electric fields, as in electromagnetic wave. 135
Adding R to LC damps the ringing Like dragging your feet on the swing. Energy being passed from magnetic to electric field eventually dissipated by resistor as heat. 136
Tank Circuit permiability and permitivity around loop ^ 137
current is now through loop rather than around it How can impedance be infinite through the parallel LC circuit when each of the components can pass current? At the resonant frequency the currents trying to pass from the antenna to ground are shifted 90 in opposite directions and thus are 180 out of phase and cancel. No net current! This null point is an example of destructive interference, how lenses work with light (described by phasors 3D space). Flute. 138
Phasor Notation In BioE 1310, complex exponentials may be described unambiguously with shorthand notation re jθ "r θ " Unfortunately when applied to real voltages and currents, the same notation is widely used by engineers to mean sin or cos, peak, or RMS. Thus, A θ may mean (among other things) v( t) = A 2 sin( ωt +θ ) or v( t) = Acos( ωt +θ ) 139
Phasor Notation Ambiguity (cont ) This ambiguity is allowed to continue because linear systems change only magnitude and phase. Thus a given network of coils, capacitors, and resistors will cause the same relative change in v( t) = A 2 sin( ωt +θ ) as it does in v( t) = Acos( ωt +θ ) so it doesn t matter which definition of A θ they use for real signals, so long as they are consistent. http://www.vialab.org/bioe_1310/pdf/phasornotationmanifesto.pdf 140
Sample Problems with Phasor Notation Using our unambiguous definition of phasor notation, r θ = re jθ Express the following as a complex number in Cartesian form (x + jy): ( 4 45 )( 6 45 ) = 24 90 = 0 + 24 j In other words, multiply the magnitudes and add the phases. For division, divide the magnitudes and subtract the phases. 6 30 3 90 = 2 60 = 1 j 3 141
Another look at Superposition Asin( ωt) + Bcos( ωt) combine to form a sinusoid with frequency ω, and how any sum of sinusoids with frequency ω amplitude frequency phase i A cos( ωt +θ ) i i any sinusoid of frequency ω is a sinusoid with frequency ω 142
Example: cos(t) + sin(t), ω = 1 cos( t) sin( t) cos( t) + sin( t) = 2 cos t π 4 is sinusoid of same frequency. 143
Recall complex conjugate pairs of phasors cos( t) = e jt + e jt 2 sin( t) = e jt e jt 2 j e jt 2 _ e jt 2 j e jt 2 e jt 2 j (recall 1 ) j = j positive (solid) and negative (dashed) frequency. 144
Adding cos and sin conjugate pairs (black) sin( t) cos( t) creates single conjugate pair (gray). cos( t) + sin ( t ) = 2 cos t π 4 hypotenuse 145
Fourier Series Applies only to periodic signals x t Inverse Fourier Series + n= ( ) = a n e jnω 0t harmonic number fundamental frequency Fourier coefficient: stationary phasor (complex number) determines magnitude and phase of particular harmonic. Any periodic signal x (t) consists of a series of sinusoidal harmonics of a fundamental frequency. ω 0 Each harmonic with is a pair of complex conjugate phasors with positive and negative frequency. The DC harmonic has a constant value,. n 0 n = 0 146
The n th harmonic can also be written as a weighted sum of sin and cos at frequency nω 0, (n 0) A cos( nω t) + B sin( nω t) n 0 n 0 real coefficients creating a single sinusoid of a given phase and amplitude. (same as created by the conjugate phasors at n and n). The zero harmonic n = 0 (DC) is a cosine of zero frequency cos(0t) 147
Building a square wave by adding the odd harmonics: 1, 3, 5, 7 An infinite number of harmonics are needed for a theoretical square wave. The harmonics account for the harsher tone of the square wave (buzzer), compared to just the fundamental 1rst harmonic sinusoid (flute). 148
Fourier Series: How to find coefficient a n Inverse Fourier Series x t a n = 1 T 0 stationary phasor for harmonic number n T 0 + n= ( ) = a n e jnω 0t Fourier Series x( t)e jnω 0t dt fundamental frequency backwards-spinning phasor. period T 0 = 2π ω 0 Periodic signal x (t) consists of phasors forming the sinusoidal harmonics of. ω 0 Backward-spinning phasor e jnω 0t spins the entire set of phasors in x(t), making the particular phasor e jnω 0t stand still. All other phasors complete revolutions integrating to 0. 149
Fourier Transform Applies to any finite signal (not just periodic) Inverse Fourier Transform x( t) = 1 2π + Fourier Transform ( ) = x t X ω + X ( ω )e jωt dω ( )e jωt dt As before, backwards-spinning phasor makes corresponding component of x(t) stand still. Fourier coefficient a n has now become a continues function of frequency, X(ω), with phasors possible at every frequency. X(ω) is a stationary phasor for any particular ω that determines the magnitude and phase of the corresponding phasor in x(t). e jωt 150
The complex exponential e./0 forms an orthogonal basis set for any signal. Each phasor passes through a linear system without affecting the system s response to any other. To understand a linear system, all we need to know is what it does to e./0 This is the linear system s frequency response. A linear system can only change the phase and amplitude of a given phasor, not its frequency, by multiplying it by a stationary phasor H(ω), the frequency response of the system. 151
Frequency component X ω e./0 When inverse Fourier Transform builds x (t) x( t) = 1 2π + X ( ω )e jωt dω stationary phasor X ω scales the magnitude and rotates the phase of unit spinning phasor e./0. 152
Systems modeled as Filters We describe input and output signals as spectra X ω and Y ω, the amplitude and phase of e./0 at ω. System s transfer function H ω changes the magnitude and phase of X ω to yield Y ω by multiplication. Y ω = H ω X ω H ω = 6 / 7 / 153
Systems modeled as Filters H ω = 6 / 7 / Consider system with voltage divider of complex impedances. H ( ω ) = Z 1 Z 1 + Z 2 Same rule applies as with resistor voltage divider. Impedance divider changes the amplitude and phase of X ω e./0. 154
Example: RC High-Pass Filter H ω = 6 / 7 / H ( ω ) = R R + 1 jωc = jω RC 1+ jω RC At high frequencies, acts like a piece of wire. At low frequencies, attenuates and differentiates. H ( ω ) 1, ω >> 1 RC H ( ω ) jω RC, ω << 1 RC Key frequency is reciprocal of time constant RC. 155
Example: LR Low-Pass Filter H ω = 6 / 7 / H ( ω ) = R R + jωl = 1 1+ jω L R At low frequencies, acts like a piece of wire. At high frequencies, attenuates and integrates. H ( ω ) 1, ω << R L H ( ω ) R jωl, ω >> R L Key frequency is reciprocal of time constant L/R. 156
Example: RC Low-Pass Filter H ω = 6 / 7 / At low frequencies, acts like a piece of wire. (assuming no current at output) H ( ω ) = 1 jωc R + 1 jωc = H ( ω ) 1, ω << 1 RC 1 1+ jω RC At high frequencies, attenuates and integrates. H ( ω ) 1 jω RC, ω >> 1 RC Key frequency is reciprocal of time constant RC. 157
Decibels ratio of gain (attenuation) 1 Bell = 10 db = order of magnitude in power P 1 db 10 log out 10 P in so if P in = 1 W and P out = 100 W è 20 db Since power voltage 2 V 1 db 20 log out 10 V in so if V in = 1 V and V out = 10 V è 20 db Alexander Graham Bell db are pure ratios, no units, as opposed to dbv (voltage compared to 1 V), db SPL (sound pressure level compared to threshold of hearing), etc. 158
Magnitude and Phase of Low-Pass Filter Recall low-pass filter: H ω = 9 9:./;< At corner (or cut-off ) frequency, ω C = 1/RC, H ( ω ) = 1 1+ j 1 j 1 j = 1 j 2 Magnitude (Gain/Attenuation) H ( ω ) = 1 j 2 H ( ω ) 3dB = 1 2 H ω Phase ( ) = arctan 1 2 H ( ω ) = 45 1 2 159
Bode Plot of Low Pass Filter (previous slide) Simply a log/log plot of H ( ω ) and H ( ω ) (this one vs. f, not ω) http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_2.html 160
Magnitude and Phase of High-Pass Filter Recall high-pass filter: H ω =./;< 9:./;< At cut-off frequency, ω C = 1/RC, H ( ω ) = j 1+ j 1 j 1 j = 1+ j 2 Magnitude H ( ω ) = 1+ j 2 = 1 2 Phase H ( ω ) = arctan 1 2 1 2 H ( ω ) 3dB H ( ω ) = 45 161
Bode Plot of High Pass Filter (previous slide) Simply a log/log plot of H ( ω ) and H ( ω ) (this one vs. f, not ω) http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_2.html 162
Values for AC Voltage Peak V P or Max V M Peak-to Peak V PP Root Mean Square V RMS Any sinusoidal signal V(t) has all three values. Since sin 2 + cos 2 = 1, and since sin 2 and cos 2 must each have the same mean value, each must have a mean value of ½. Or put another way: cos 2 Therefore, for a sinusoid ( ωt) = V RMS = V P 2 ( ) 2 mean = ½ 1+ cos 2ωt 163
RMS used to compute AC Power in Resistor When V and I are in-phase (resistor), average power is defined as in DC. Energy is not stored in the resistor, but simply dissipated as heat. Power in a resistor may be computed from V P and or I P for sinusoids, or from V RMS and or I RMS for any signal. For any signal in a resistor: ( P = V RMS I RMS = V ) 2 RMS R P = 1 2 V P I P = 1 2 R because V RMS = V P 2 For sinusoids: and ( ) 2 V P = ( I ) 2 RMS R = 1 ( 2 I P ) 2 R I RMS = I P 2 164
AC Power in Capacitor or Inductor Since V RMS and I RMS are 90 outof-phase in capacitor or inductor, the power is 0 cos( ωt)sin( ωt) = sin( 2ωt) 2 Thus no heat is dissipated, all stored energy returned to circuit average = 0 Thus light propagates by passing energy from magnetic to electric fields without loss sin and cos have 0 correlation 165
iron core Transformer Extremely efficient at preserving power: V 1 I 1 V 2 I 2 Allows voltage (AC) to be changed: V 2 = N M V 1 Voltages and currents assumed to be sinusoids, generally reported as RMS Permits efficient high-voltage power transmission, with small current: thus little I 2 R energy wasted in long wires. 166
World s Fair Chicago 1893 Tesla and Westinghouse (AC) beat Edison (DC). George Westinghouse Nikola Tesla Thomas Edison 167
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