REFERENCE: The Blue Planet An Introduction to Earth System Science. Brian J. Skinner and Barbara W. Murck (2011) Third Edition. John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Energy is the capacity to do work, to move matter, to make things happen. 1. : stored in a system. 2. : expressed in the movement of electrons, atoms, molecules, materials, and objects.
1. Chemical Energy: the energy that holds the molecules and compounds together. 2. Nuclear Energy: the energy that holds atomic nuclei together. 3. Stored Mechanical Energy: Energy stored in objects through the application of force, ex. springs. 4. Gravitational Energy: the energy that arises from the gravitational force between two objects, such as the moon and the Earth.
1. Radiant Energy: is the energy radiated by particles that are electrically charge, also called electromagnetic radiation. 2. Electrical Energy: the movement of electrons or other charged particles. 3. Thermal Energy: or heat, the vibrational movement of atoms and molecules. 4. Sound: results when an object is cause to vibrate. 5. Motion: is a change in position of an object with respect to time.
First Law: Conservation and Transformation In a system of constant mass, the energy involved in any physical or chemical change is neither created nor destroyed, but merely changed from one form to another.
Second Law: Efficiency and Entropy Energy always changes from a more useful, more concentrated form to a less useful, less concentrated form. The flow of energy involves degradation, which leads to increasing disorganization ( ) in the system.
Third Law: Absolute Zero It postulates the existence of the state of absolute zero temperature. is a measure of heat, the vibrational motion of particles.
Convection: Is the process by which hot, less dense materials rise upward and are replaced by cold, more dense materials (downward-flowing and sideways flowing) to create a convection current (shown in figure). Conduction: Is the process by which heat can move through any solid body, like solid rock, without changing the shape of the body. radiation convection conduction Radiation: Is the process in which heat passes through a gas or liquid. This is the way that heat reaches the Earth from the Sun.
1. External - Solar radiation 2. Internal - Geothermal energy 3. Earth-Moon-Sun - Tidal interactions
The Sun is by far the main source of energy coming into the Earth system from an external source.
It is the total amount of energy radiated outward each second by the Sun. Sphere's surface area=4 r 2 = 2.8 x 10 23 m 2 Luminosity=Area x Flux = (2.8 x10 23 m 2 )(1370 W/m 2 ) = 3.8 x 10 26 watts 1 watt (W) = J/s
The fusion process: Nuclear reactions where lightweight chemical elements (like hydrogen) form heavier elements (such as helium and carbon). This process converts matter (i.e. mass of an atom) to energy. Albert Einstein in 1905 showed that: E = mc 2 Where, E= Energy m= mass c=speed of light in a vacuum (3.0 x 10 8 m/s)
The Sun produces its energy by two fusion reactions: 1. Proton-Proton (PP) 88% 2. Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) 12% Four 1 H One 4 He + Energy H = 1.00794 H x 4 = 4.03176 He = 4.002602 The difference is released as energy. The energy released in this fusion reaction is about 4.2 x 10-12 Joules But 4.5 x 10 6 metric tons of H are converted to He every second.
It is the energy radiated by particles that are electrically charge For example: Light, X-ray, infrared rays, and radio waves. Wavelength ( ): The distance between two successive crests. Speed ( ): The distance traveled by a crest in one second. : The number of crests (or cycles) that pass a given point each second. Therefore; = c f
It is a group of electromagnetic rays arranged in order of increasing or decreasing wavelength. Wavelength (nm) 0.03 300 400 700 10 6 (1 mm) 3X10 8 (30 cm) Gamma Ray X-Ray UV Visible Infrared Microwave (Radar) Radio Blue Green Red
Energy is created in the core when hydrogen is fused to helium. This energy flows out from the core by radiation through the radiative layer, by convection through the convective layer, and by radiation from the surface of the photosphere, which is the portion of the Sun we see.
The two curves are different because gases in the atmosphere (oxygen, water vapor, and carbon dioxide) selectively absorb some of the wavelengths of emitted radiation.
SOHO is a project of international collaboration between ESA and NASA to study the Sun from its deep core to the outer corona and the solar wind. Launched on December 2, 1995. The SOHO spacecraft was built in Europe under overall management by ESA. Originally planned as a two-year mission, SOHO currently continues to operate after over ten years in space.
TWELVE INSTRUMENTS ON SOHO WERE PROVIDED BY EUROPEAN AND AMERICAN SCIENTISTS 1. CDS (Coronal Diagnostic Spectrometer) - Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, United Kingdom 2. CELIAS (Charge, Element, and Isotope Analysis System) - Universitat Bern, in Switzerland 3. COSTEP (Comprehensive Suprathermal and Energetic Particle Analyzer) - University of Kiel, Germany 4. EIT (Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope) - NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, USA 5. ERNE (Energetic and Relativistic Nuclei and Electron experiment) - University of Turku, Finland 6. GOLF (Global Oscillations at Low Frequencies) - Institut d'astrophysique Spatiale, France 7. LASCO (Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph) - Naval Research Laboratory, USA and Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research, Germany 8. MDI (Michelson Doppler Imager) - Stanford University, USA 9. SUMER (Solar Ultraviolet Measurements of Emitted Radiation) - Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research, Germany 10. SWAN (Solar Wind Anisotropies) - FMI, Finland, and from the Service d'aeronomie, France 11. UVCS (Ultraviolet Coronagraph Spectrometer) - Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, USA 12. VIRGO (Variability of Solar Irradiance and Gravity Oscillations) - Institut d'astrophysique Spatiale, France
Incoming short-wavelength solar radiation accounts for 99.8 % of the total Earth s energy budget.
This incoming solar radiation is received at different wavelengths with different levels of energy. Current remote sensing techniques are capable to separate these different wavelengths in different channels or bands.
SDO: The Solar Dynamics Observatory is the first mission to be launched for NASA's Living With a Star (LWS) Program, a program designed to understand the causes of solar variability and its impacts on Earth. SDO is designed to help us understand the Sun's influence on Earth and Near-Earth space by studying the solar atmosphere on small scales of space and time and in many wavelengths simultaneously. SDO was launched on February 11, 2010, 10:23 am EST on an Atlas V from Cape Canaveral. More info at: http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/
Atmospheric Imaging Assembly Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager Extreme Ultraviolet Variability Experiment
Improved Resolution
This is a beautiful profile view of cascading loops spiraling above it (Jan. 15-16, 2012) following a solar flare eruption. These loop structures are made of superheated plasma, just one of which is the size of several Earths. With its ability to capture the Sun in amazing detail, SDO observed it all in extreme ultraviolet light. This particular video clip used an image every five minutes to present the motion. Note all of the other spurts and minor bursts from both regions during almost two days.
A solar eruption gracefully rose up from the sun on December 31, 2012, twisting and turning. Magnetic forces drove the flow of plasma, but without sufficient force to overcome the sun s gravity much of the plasma fell back into the sun. This four hour event occurred from 10:20 am to 2:20 pm EST and was captured by NASA s Solar Dynamics Observatory in extreme ultraviolet light shown here at a high cadence of an image every 36 seconds.
It is hypothesized that convection also occurs in the interior of the Earth due to the geothermal gradient.
Temperature increases with depth in the Earth's interior. Note that temperature increases more slowly with depth under continental crust that under oceanic crust.
In Red: Material that has move up relative to the reference sphere. Much of the energy involved in tidal distortion is translated into heat energy. In Blue: Material that has move down relative to the reference sphere.