An Application of Taoist Thought in Short Term Psychotherapy

Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Dissertations Graduate College 12-1982 An Application of Taoist Thought in Short Term Psychotherapy David Leslie Knoblauch Western Michigan University Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations Part of the Counseling Commons, and the Student Counseling and Personnel Services Commons Recommended Citation Knoblauch, David Leslie, "An Application of Taoist Thought in Short Term Psychotherapy" (1982). Dissertations. 2528. http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/2528 This Dissertation-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact maira.bundza@wmich.edu.

AN APPLICATION OP TAOIST THOUGHT IN SHORT TERM PSYCHOTHERAPY fay D avid L e s lie Knoblauch A D is s e r ta tio n S ubm itted to th e F a c u lty o f The G raduate C ollege in p a r t i a l f u lf illm e n t o f th e req u ire m en ts f o r th e Degree o f D octor o f E ducation D epartm ent o f C ounseling and P erso n n el W estern M ichigan U n iv e rs ity Kalamazoo, M ichigan December, 1982

An A p p lic a tio n o f T a o is t Thought in S h o rt Term P sychotherapy David L e s lie K noblauch, Ed.D. W estern M ichigan U n iv e rs ity, 1982 Taoism o r ig in a te d in China d u rin g th e - 5 th and -Jj-th c e n tu rie s w ith th e Tao T e'c hing, which i s a t t r i b u t e d to Lao Tzu. T his a n c ie n t p h ilo so p h y d e lin e a te d a way o f a c tin g in harmony w ith th e course and tre n d o f th e n a tu ra l w o rld. In th e U n ite d S ta te s, T a o is t th o u g h t has been in c re a s in g in p o p u la rity s in c e th e 1 9 3 0 's. C.G. Jung, A lan W atts, and Abraham Maslow were prom inent in b rin g in g Taoism to a fu n c tio n a l u n d e rsta n d in g in A m erica's p sy c h o lo g ic a l community. They prom oted th e view t h a t man i s n o t an is o la te d ego which must c o n tro l e x p e rie n c e, b u t r a th e r th a t man i s a p a r t o f th e o rd e r and flow o f a l l th in g s who must y ie ld to t h i s o rd e r and flow to be p s y c h o lo g ic a lly h e a lth y. The p re s e n t stu d y fo cu sed on th e a p p lic a tio n o f Taoism to p sy ch o th erapy. The work c o n c e n tra te d on fo u r s p e c if ic a r e a s. F i r s t, fundam ental p e rc e p ts o f Taoism ta k en from t r a d i t i o n a l and modem te x ts were a p p lie d to th e developm ent o f a p e r s o n a lity th e o ry. th e o ry. Second, f iv e - p r a c tic a l c o n s tru c ts were d e riv e d from th e T h ird, th e c o n s tru c ts were a p p lie d in two cases o f a c tu a l p sy choth erapy, and, f i n a l l y, an e v a lu a tio n was made o f th e c o n s tru c ts a s a p p lie d in th e case s tu d ie s.

An e m p iric a l a c tio n re s e a rc h d esig n developed by Goldman was used to t e s t th e v a l i d i t y o f th e c o n s tru c ts. C lie n ts w ere two u n iv e rs ity s tu d e n ts w ith p e rso n a l concerns who were a p p ro p ria te f o r p sy chotherapy o f e ig h t s e s s io n s o r l e s s. T a o is t p sy ch o th erapy c o n s tru c ts were employed a s th e tre a tm e n t approach w ith tre a tm e n t g o a ls d i r e c t l y p a ire d w ith each o f th e f iv e c o n s tru c ts. The cons t r u c t s used and th e c l i e n t 's resp o n ses to th e c o n s tru c ts were ta k e n verb atim from re c o rd e d m agnetic ta p e. An assessm ent was made a s to th e e f f e c ts o f th e c o n s tru c ts employed w ith each c l i e n t by com paring th e g o als o f th e in te rv e n tio n and tre a tm e n t r e s u l t s. The assessm ent showed th a t th e c o n s tru c ts g en era ted r e s u l t s congruent w ith tre a tm e n t g o a ls. C lie n ts ex p erien ced an in c re a s e d allow ance o f and t r u s t in : ( l ) th e h ere and now s itu a tio n, Nowness; (2 ) th e a b i l i t y to "swim w ith th e c u rre n t, " Not T ry in g ; ( 3 ) an em erging sen se o f s e l f th a t i s la r g e r th an th e ego, Ego D eem phasis; (4) a l e s s judgem ental a t t i t u d e, G u ilt D e s e n s itiz a tio n ; ( 5 ) a f e e lin g o f l e t t i n g go, A cceptance.

INFORMATION TO USERS This reproduction was made from a copy o f a document sent to us for microfilming. While the most advanced technology has been used to photograph and reproduce this document, the quality of the reproduction is heavily dependent upon the quality o f the material submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help clarify markings or notations which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or target for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is Missing Page(s). If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting through an image and duplicating adjacent pages to assure com plete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark, it is an indication of either blurred copy because of movement during exposure, duplicate copy, or copyrighted materials that should not have been filmed. For blurred pages, a good image o f the page can be found in the adjacent frame. If copyrighted materials were deleted, a target note will appear listing the pages in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., is part o f the material being photographed, a definite method o f sectioning the material has been followed. It is customary to begin filming at the upper left hand com er o f a large sheet and to continue from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. If necessary, sectioning is continued again beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. For illustrations that cannot be satisfactorily reproduced by xerographic means, photographic prints can be purchased at additional cost and inserted into your xerographic copy. These prints are available upon request from the Dissertations Custom er Services Departm ent. 5. Some pages in any document may have indistinct print. In all cases the best available copy has been filmed. University Micrcxilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106

8306531 Knoblauch, David Leslie AN APPLICATION OF TAOIST THOUGHT IN SHORT TERM PSYCHOTHERAPY Western Michigan University Ed.D. 1982 University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 Copyright 1982 by Knoblauch, David Leslie All Rights Reserved

DEDICATION To Lynn, who e n liv e n e d my own sen se o f wonder and was a c o n tin u in g so u rce o f in s p ir a tio n th ro u g h o u t t h i s p r o je c t. D avid L e s lie Knoblauch

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am d eep ly in d e b te d to James J. Lowe, Ph.D. f o r h is generous s h a rin g o f c l i n i c a l and p h ilo so p h ic a l in s ig h t a s w ell a s h is a s s is ta n c e and encouragem ent th ro u g h o u t th e d o c to ra l program. As te a c h e r and g u id e, he r i v a l s th e T a o is t sage Chuang Tzu. From program in c e p tio n to re s e a rc h com pletion, R obert L. B etz, Ph.D. sp a re d no e f f o r t to remove each o b s ta c le in my p a th. In a d e c is iv e m anner, h is em inent p r o fe s s io n a l judgem ent was p a ire d w ith h e a rte n in g guid an ce. I th a n k R obert F. H opkins, Ed.D. f o r h is hours o f d is s e r ta t io n rev iew and c o n s tru c tiv e feed b ack. H is e n th u s ia s tic su p p o rt was g r e a tly a p p re c ia te d. D avid L e s lie Knoblauch

TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...i i C hapter I. INTRODUCTION... 1 S tatem en t o f th e P r o b l e m...3 D e fin itio n o f T e rm s...4 Review o f S e le c te d L ite r a tu r e... 6 M e th o d o lo g y... 12 I I. THEORY AND APPLICATION... 16 Theory o f P e r s o n a l i t y...16 P sy c h o th e ra p e u tic A p p lic a tio n... 28 I I I. ILLUSTRATIVE PRACTICE...43 Case I... 43 Case I I...62 IV. ASSESSMENT OF CASES... '... 83 Case I...83 Case I I...87 V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS...92 BIBLIOGRAPHY... 97

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Taoism o rig in a te d in China d u rin g th e -5 th and -4 th c e n tu r ie s. A group o f w ritin g s, th e Tao Te Ching, which i s a t t r i b u t e d to Lao Tzu, and th e Chuang Tzu emerged a t t h i s tim e and rem ain th e forem ost T a o is t p h ilo so p h ic books. These w ritin g s espouse th e way o f m an's co o p era tio n w ith th e n a tu ra l o rd e r o f th e u n iv e rs e ; t h i s o rd e r can m e ta p h o ric a lly be d e sc rib e d as th e flow o f w ater (W atts, 1975)* Zen Buddhism ev olved from a com bination o f a n c ie n t Taoism and Maha- yana Buddhism about th e + 6th c e n tu ry. Zen prom otes th e f e e lin g th a t awakening to th e Tao i s som ething q u ite n a tu r a l, som ething which may o ccur a t any moment. S in ce th e 1 9 3 0 's, Taoism and Zen Buddhism have had a s e rio u s fo llo w in g w ith in th e U nited S ta t e s. I n th e f i e l d o f p sy chotherapy s e v e ra l prom inent a u th o r /th e r a p is ts (Fromm, I960; Kopp, 1972; Maslow, 1973; Brandon, 1976; B olen, 1979) have espoused t h i s p h ilo s o p h ic a l theme a s a p o s s ib le method o f d e a lin g w ith tro u b le d p e rs o n s. C.G. Jung (1931» 1939> 1958, 1961), th e em inent Swiss p sy ch o an aly st and a u th o r, a ls o in c o rp o ra te d T a o is t and Zen concepts in h is w ritin g and th e ra p y. As p h ilo s o p h ie s, Taoism and Zen have "w eathered th e t e s t o f tim e" and a re re c o g n iz e d as sta n d a rd among o th e r E a ste rn a s w ell a s W estern p h ilo s o p h ic a l approaches (N oss, 1980). R ecently, A lan W atts (1951> 1957» 1961, 1966, 1972, 1975) has added s ig n if ic a n t c o n trib u tio n s 1

2 to th e in te r p r e ta tio n s o f Taoism and Zen. H is d e c is iv e c l a r i f i c a tio n s e lu c id a te how man, from a T a o is t p e rs p e c tiv e, i s n o t an i s o l a te d ego b u t r a th e r a p a r t o f th e o rd e r and flow o f a l l th in g s th e Tao. Kopp, to o, (1972) e x p lo re s t h i s theme from a p sy c h o th e ra p e u tic view point and e m p h a tic a lly s tr e s s e s t h a t p sy c h o lo g ic a lly tro u b le d p erso n s must n o t t r y to f ig h t o r escape t h e i r p a in and d isc o m fo rt; th e y must y ie ld to escap e. Brandon (1976) c re a te d th e term " T a o is tic change" f o r t h i s way o f h e lp in g p eo p le. O 'N eil (1979) has su g g ested th a t th e r e la tio n s h ip o f American p h ilo so p h y to E a ste rn p h ilo so p h y i s re m in iscen t o f o u r vague conceptio n o f E x is te n tia lis m in th e 19^0's. At th a t tim e, S a r tr e and H eidegger were s y s te m a tic a lly d ev elo p in g th e p h ilo so p h y, and i t s conc e p ts were b ein g ex p ressed in th e a r t s and l i t e r a t u r e. However, i t was y ears l a t e r b efo re th e im pact o f E x is te n tia l p h ilo so p h y began to have re le v a n c e f o r th e f i e l d o f psychology. The r e s u l t o f t h i s re le v a n c e was th e c re a tio n o f v a rio u s psychotherapy approaches which p la c e p erso n s a s re s p o n s ib le f o r t h e i r own b e h a v io r. R a tio n a l Emot i v e Therapy i s perhaps th e a rc h e ty p a l m a n ife sta tio n o f t h i s p h ilo so p h y 's q u a n tita tiv e e x i s t e n t i a l meaning. C u rre n tly, many p eo p le a re e x p re ssin g an in c re a s in g need f o r q u a l ita t iv e experien ce and movement waay from th e dream /w ish to carve o u t a q u a n tita tiv e e x i s t e n t i a l meaning. Taoism and Zen o f f e r people a r e l i a b l e a l te r n a t iv e e x p e rie n c e. C oncurrent w ith O 'N e il's exam ple, many a r t i s t s a re now u sin g Taoism and Zen th ro u g h t books such a s The Tao o f P a in tin g (S ze, 1956) and The Zen o f S eein g ;

Seeing/D raw ing a s M ed itatio n (F ran ck, 1973) R elev an t and re s p e c ta b le books a re em erging in th e f i e l d o f psychology such a s The Tao o f Psychology (B olen, 1979) and Zen in th e A rt o f H elping (Brandon, 1976). D e sp ite th e in c re a s e d p o p u la riz a tio n o f th e se E a ste rn p h ilo s o p h ie s, th e re i s c u rre n tly l i t t l e e f f o r t to v a lid a te t h e i r u s e fu ln e s s w ith in th e f i e l d o f co u n selin g and p sy ch o th erapy. S tatem en t o f th e Problem The purpose o f t h i s re s e a rc h was to explo re and v a lid a te th e use o f Taoism and Zen in p sy ch o th era p y. Many p r a c t itio n e r s use r e la x a tio n te c h n iq u e s, m e d ita tio n te c h n iq u e s, and Zen p h ilo so p h y f o r b o th p e rs o n a l and p r o fe s s io n a l re a s o n s. However, th e y a ls o co n tin u e to use q u a n tita tiv e p sy c h o lo g ic a l te c h n iq u e s such a s c o g n itiv e c o n tro l which "ru n a g a in s t th e g ra in " o f th e q u a lita tiv e s ta n c e w hich th e y a r e p u rsu in g. F or exam ple, a p s y c h o th e ra p is t may u se c o g n itiv e cont r o l methods and a ls o m e d ita tio n, two c o n f lic tin g te c h n iq u e s. The m ajor g o a l o f m e d ita tio n i s to a llo w o n e s e lf to be f r e e o f ego cont r o l s. How can one l e t go and c o n tro l a t th e same tim e? Thus, th e re e x i s t s a la c k o f congruence betw een th e se th e ra p e u tic in te r v e n tio n s. Blaming th e p r a c t i t i o n e r i s too sim ple because th e re c u r r e n tly e x is ts few avenues f o r one to le a r n more congruent te c h n iq u e s c o n s is te n t w ith t h i s em erging p sy c h o lo g ic a l s ta n c e. O 'N eil (1979) s t a t e s, "We have an ample supply o f ends and g o a ls, b u t v ery l i t t l e d e s c r ip tiv e m a te ria l on th e m eans. We s ta n d i n g re a t need o f p r a c t i c a l tech n iq u e and d is c ip lin e " (p. 2 2 0 ). More s p e c if i c a l ly, th e n, th e purpose o f

t h i s stu d y was to e x p lic a te and v a lid a te a s e t o f p r a c t i c a l te c h n iq u e s to im plem ent T a o is t and Zen p h ilo s o p h ie s. The stu d y was n o t in te n d e d to he d e f in i tiv e b u t r a t h e r as a means to provoke thought and in s p ir e experim ent which i s seen as c o n s is te n t w ith Taoism and Zen. D e fin itio n o f Terms Knowing what c e r t a in term s mean i s im p o rta n t to u n d erstan d in g th e work u ndertaken h e re. T his i s e s p e c ia lly tr u e when many o f th e term s do n o t f a l l w ith in th e realm o f what i s c o n sid ere d common usage. F ollow ing, th e n, a re d e f in itio n s d esigned to b rid g e t h a t gap o f u n d e rsta n d in g. Taoism. A p h ilo so p h y which h o ld s, "The way o f m an's cooperatio n w ith th e course o r tr e n d o f th e n a tu r a l w orld, whose p r in c ip le s we d is c o v e r in th e flow p a tte r n s o f w ater" (W atts, 1975» P* x i v ). Zen Buddhism. A way o f l i b e r a tio n in which people d is c o v e r t h e i r e s s e n tia l s e lf - n a t u r e, th e Tao, th ro u g h d ir e c t p e rso n a l ex p erie n c e and spontaneous aw akening. Y in-yang. An e x p l i c i t d u a lity e x p re ssin g an im p lic it u n ity in a l l th in g s. "These term s mean l i t e r a l l y "d ark sid e " and "sunny sid e " o f a h i l l (W aley, 1958, p. 110). "They a re two in te rd e p e n d e n t and com plementary f a c e ts o f e x iste n c e " (Waley, 1958, p. 112).

Wu-wei. The way o f allo w in g th in g s to be o r a c tin g w ith in th e o rd e r o f th e n a tu r a l w orld. "Wu-wei i s to r o l l w ith e x p erien ces and go, l i k e a b a l l in a m ountain stream, though a c tu a lly th e re i s no b a l l a p a r t from th e co n v o lu tio n s and w iggles o f th e stream i t s e l f " (W atts, 1975» P* 9 6 ). T e. The n a tu r a l v irtu e and power d e riv e d th ro u g h tr u s tin g in b o th th e good and bad o f a l l th in g s a s a u n ifie d system, " te i s bound up w ith th e id e a o f p o t e n t i a l i t y...te means a l a t e n t power, a " v irtu e " in h e re n t in som ething (Waley, 1958, pp. 3 1-3 2 ). "In t h e i s t i c term s, t e i s what happens "by th e grace o f God" as d i s t i n c t from human s tr iv i n g (W atts, 1975? P* 107). B ig m ind. A p e rv a siv e c a p a c ity o f t r u s t and accep tan ce o f what i s, a view o f m utual in te r r e la te d n e s s o f a l l th in g s ; s u b je c t and o b je c t a re one. Sm all m ind. C h a ra c te riz e d by a d u a l i s t i c s ta n c e which i s marked by a tte m p ts to make th in g s more p o s itiv e w hile s tr iv i n g to e lim in a te th e n e g a tiv e a s p e c ts o f human e x p e rie n c e. T his p sy c h o lo g ic a l s ta n c e f i t s in to th e ego dom inated w orld o f s e l f - a s s e r t i n g power. From th e T a o is t p e rs p e c tiv e, t h i s sta n c e ty p ic a lly m o tiv ates b eh av io r th ro u g h id e a lis m and th e r e s u lta n t g u i l t produced by ego c e n te re d a tte m p ts to dom inate and c o n tro l e x p e rie n c e. S u b je c t and o b je c t a re p e rc e iv e d a s s e p a ra te e n t i t i e s w ith no im p lic it onen ess.

6 Ego g rasp in g s ta te m e n t. A v e rb a l sta te m e n t which r e f l e c t s th e p sy c h o lo g ic a l s ta n c e o f sm all m ind. F or example, " I f I accep t th in g s th e way th e y a r e, I w ill n ev er change." Ego g ra sp in g them e. A h is to r y a n d /o r c u rre n t p a tte r n o f a sm all mind p sy c h o lo g ic a l s ta n c e. F or exam ple: ( l ) p erso n s may n o t give them selves p erm issio n to be tro u b le d in th e h ere and now, (2) th e y f e e l a need to t r y h a rd e r in o rd e r to make them selves more id e a l, (3) th e y f e e l t h i s id e a l can be accom plished by ego dom inated e f f o r t s, (4) th ro u g h t h i s p ro c e s s, th e y ex p erien ce g u i l t, and (3) th e y a re unable to a c c e p t them selves a s th e y a r e. T a o ist P sy ch o th erap y. The term used in t h i s stu d y to in d ic a te th e use o f philo so p h y o f th e Tao in w orking w ith tro u b le d p e rso n s. Review o f S elected. L ite r a tu r e A posthum ously p u b lish e d book by Maslow (1973) c o n tain ed an e ssa y c a lle d Theory Z. T h is work p o s tu la te d a degree o f h e a lth in e s s which Maslow b e lie v e d in d ic a te d som ething more f u l l and human th an a n y th in g he had d e scrib e d b e fo re. A lthough he c ite d no s in g le E a ste rn p sy c h o lo g ist a s a so u rce f o r h is id e a s, he f r e e ly s p rin k le d E a ste rn concepts in h is d is c u s s io n. F or example, Maslow su g g ested t h a t a th e r a p is t a t th e le v e l o f Theory Z i s a c tu a lly a T a o is t g u id e. However, a f t e r more th a n a decade sin c e M aslow 's w ritin g, a review o f c u rre n t a v a ila b le l i t e r a t u r e has produced no re fe re n c e to th e use o f Taoism a s th e main p h ilo so p h ic base f o r p sy ch o th era

p e u tic a p p lic a tio n. There have been s e v e ra l a tte m p ts to in te g r a te th e p h ilosophy o f th e Tao in to o th e r th e ra p e u tic sy stem s. I n th e Tao o f P sychology, Bolen (1979) i n t e r p r e t s th e Tao to he th e e q u iv a le n t o f sy n ch ro n i- c ity in Jungian psychology. I n t h i s lim ite d in te r p r e ta tio n and method, she e x p lo re s th e in t e r r e la tio n s h ip "between m eaningful c o in c id e n c e s s y n c h ro n ic is tic e v e n ts and th e i n t u i t i v e sense th a t we a re p a r t o f th e oneness o f th e u n iv e rs e. In h is book Zen in th e A rt o f H elping, Brandon (1976) e x p la in s th e h e lp in g p ro cess from a T a o is t p h ilo so p h ic b a s e. He dem o n strates how a h e lp in g person w ith t h i s p e rs p e c tiv e can b reak down a r t i f i c i a l b a r r ie r s t h a t serv e to s e p a ra te peo p le and h in d e r th e h e lp in g p ro c e s s. Brandon analy zes what h e lp in g r e a l l y means and su g g e sts a method which he c a lls T a o is tic change f o r working w ith people in a s o c ia l work c o n te x t. The Jap an ese method o f M orita th e ra p y u ses a key T a o ist concept in i t s tre a tm e n t approach. S e lf - c o n tr a d ic tio n r a th e r th an d e v ia tio n from th e c u l tu r a l norm a s th e b a s is o f m ental d is o rd e r i s a fundam ental M o rita concept. The m ajor form o f s e lf - c o n tr a d ic tio n i s a d iv is io n o f e x p erien ce in to s u b je c t and o b je c t, th in k e r and th o u g h t, f e e l e r and f e e lin g. A ccording to M orita th e ra p y, n eurot i c p erso n s u s u a lly e s ta b lis h u n r e a l i s t i c g o als and th en e n te r ta in e q u a lly u n r e a l i s t i c f a n ta s ie s about how th e se g o a ls may be achieved and o fte n a c t on such f a n ta s i e s. N e u ro tic p ersons th en f e e l in c re a s in g ly f r u s t r a t e d and a n x ie ty rid d e n when th e se f a n ta s ie s f a i l. A M o rita t h e r a p is t (K ora, 1965) e x p la in s th a t what i s re q u ire d to

a l l e v i a t e t h i s cy cle i s th a t p erso n s must be allow ed to ex p erien ce th e outcome o f t h e i r i l l o g i c a l prem ises in o rd e r to have in s ig h t in t o th e n a tu re o f t h e i r n e u ro s is. A cceptance o f o n e s e lf and o n e 's symptoms a r e th e means used to produce movement tow ards ending th e s e lf - c o n t r a d ic t io n. However, M o rita th e ra p y may n o t be a p p ro p ia te f o r W estern ers s in c e i t re q u ire s f iv e to seven days o f com plete b e d re s t (N ussner, 1978). A lthough W atts was n o t a p s y c h o lg ic a l t h e o r i s t, he d id much to b rin g T a o is t and Zen te a c h in g s to th e aw areness o f W estern psyc h o lo g is ts. He was a g u e st l e c t u r e r a t numerous m edical sch o o ls and p s y c h ia t r ic i n s t i t u t e s. In Psycholgy E a s t and W est, W atts (1961) re c o g n iz e d t h a t what he c a lle d E a s te rn ways o f lib e r a tio n resem b le W estern psychotherapy; b o th a re concerned w ith changing p e rso n s f e e lin g s about them selves a s w e ll a s t h e i r r e la tio n to o th e r s. W atts (1961) agreed w ith th e M o rita th e ra p y e x p la n a tio n o f n e u ro s is a s a s e lf - c o n tr a d ic tio n b u t he re p h ra sed t h i s as an a tte m p t to so lv e a f a ls e problem. In a d d itio n, W atts (1961) p o stu l a t e d t h a t th e aim s o f th e ways o f l i b e r a t i o n were e v id e n t in b o th th e G e s ta lt and Ju n g ian p sy c h o lo g ie s. D o e lser (1978) examined th e s i m i l a r i t i e s o f th e te a c h in g s o f th e Tao Te Ghing and th e w ritin g s o f P e r is (1969) u sin g co n ten t a n a ly s is te c h n iq u e. The co n clu sio n reached was t h a t alth o u g h th e r e were s i m i l a r i t i e s in th e te a c h in g s, some th e o r e tic a l co n ceptssuch a s p e rs o n a l r e s p o n s ib ility were d is s im i la r. Sm ith (1976) made an a tte m p t to broaden th e base o f G e s ta lt th e ra p y to be more

in l i n e w ith th e p h ilo so p h y o f th e Tao. However, t h i s work f i t s th e same categ o ry a s D o e ls e r's (1978) work; th a t i s, G e s ta lt th e o r i s t s who make an e f f o r t to compare them selves to o r move tow ards Taoism can go o n ly so f a r w ith o u t dropping some o f t h e i r i n i t i a l prem ises a lto g e th e r. F or exam ple, P e r is (1969) e x p la in s th a t p e r sons a re th e re s p o n s ib le d o ers o f w hatever th e y do and th a t th e y can e i t h e r acknowledge such r e s p o n s ib ility o r deny i t. W atts (1951) c o n tra d ic ts t h i s e x i s t e n t i a l a s p e c t o f G e s ta lt th e o ry and s ta t e s t h a t such "... choosing i s ab su rd because th e re i s no choice" (p. 1 1?). P erso n s can o n ly b e, w hatever th a t b ein g e n t a i l s. Ju n g ian p sy c h o a n a ly sis fo llo w s th e lin e o f th o u g h t th a t p ersons need to a c c e p t and a s s im ila te th e shadow, o r th e d ark and re p re s s e d a s p e c t o f t h e i r n a tu re. Jung (1958) found th e use o f E a ste rn psyc h o lo g ies to be a g r e a t a id in h elp in g p erso n s move tow ards t h i s a c c e p ta n c e. However, he r e je c te d E a ste rn methods a s u n s u ita b le f o r W estern p e rso n s. S p e c if ic a lly, Jung (1958) was a g a in s t " le a r n in g th e s p i r i t u a l te c h n iq u e s o f th e E a st by h e a rt and im ita tin g them in a C h ris tia n way w ith a co rresp o n d in g ly fo rc e d a ttitu d e " (p. 4 8 3 ). Jung f e l t th a t W esterners sh o u ld fin d t h e i r own way o f d ev elo p in g E a ste rn co n cepts in to a new W estern approach. "We sh o u ld th e n be in a p o s itio n to b u ild on o u r own ground w ith our own methods" ( p. 4 8 3 ). A lthough th e y f a i l e d to develop a new approach, Fromm, S uzuki, and De M artino (i9 6 0 ) made a stro n g a tte m p t to b le n d E a ste rn co ncepts in to t r a d i t i o n a l W estern psychoa n a ly s is in Zen Buddhism and P sy c h o a n a ly s is. T his work has a r a th e r

10 s t r i c t Zen fo cu s and la c k s th e m e rits th a t Jung (1931) saw in th e use o f Taoism. In a d d itio n, t h i s work i s more th a n tw enty y ears o ld, and o b v io u sly, psychotherapy a s undergone c o n sid e ra b le s h i f t s o f fo cu s in th e p a s t tw enty y e a r s. T h e o r itic a l re s e a rc h tr a n s l a tin g Zen in to u sa b le p ra c tic e i s em erging in th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n. O 'N eil (1979) examined Zen e d u c a tio n a l p r in c ip le s by a n a ly z in g th e te a c h e r 's r o le in th e p ro c e ss o f tr a n s m ittin g th e Zen t r a d i t i o n. Levy (1980) developed a th e o ry o f re a d in g and re le v a n t classroom p ro ced u res based upon Zen p h ilo so p h y. H is e x c itin g work in th e te a c h in g o f re a d in g makes use o f o th e r ways o f knowing n o t j u s t th e p re v a le n t l i n e a r, l o g i c a l mode o f e x p e rie n c in g and, a c c o rd in g to Levy, allo w s th e re a d e r to b rin g much more th a n c o g n itiv e s k i l l to th e p r in te d page. Capra (1 9 7 9 ) i in th e Tao o f P h y s ic s, dem onstrated how modem atom ic p h y sic s le a d s us to a T a o is t view o f r e a l i t y. Capra summ arized t h i s r e a l i t y by sayin g th a t tim e and space a re a continum, m a tte r and energy in te rc h a n g e, and o b se rv e r a s w ell a s observed i n t e r a c t. A nother s c i e n t i s t (Futuyma, 1979) e x p la in e d th e mechanism o f e v o lu tio n in a way which i s congruent w ith th e philosophy o f th e Tao. He s t a t e s, " th e system does n o t change tow ard a g o a l, th e re i s no v io le n t s tru g g le, th e re i s no m o ra lity, and th e s ta t e o f th e system t h a t fo llo w s from th e s e le c tiv e p ro c e ss i s n o t b e t t e r th a n i t s p re v io u s s t a t e ; i t j u s t is " (p. 2 9 2 ). Franck (1973) a p p lie s th e T a o is t sen se o f th in g s to th e a c t o f c r e a tio n. However, th e most c r e a tiv e in s ig h t in to th e p h ilo so p h y o f th e Tao was

11 accom plished in th e p o e try o f W allace S tevens (1 9 6 7 ). Hie poem The Snow Man r e f l e c t s th e Tao a s a p p lie d to a p e rs o n a l psychology o f lu c id u n d erstan d in g and t o t a l accep tan c e o f l i f e. One must have a mind o f w in te r To re g a rd th e f r o s t and th e houghs Of th e p in e - tr e e s c ru s te d w ith snow; And have heen co ld a lo n g tim e To behold th e ju n ip e rs shagged w ith ic e, The sp ru ces rough in th e d i s t a n t g l i t t e r Of th e Jan u ary sun; and n o t to th in k Of any m ise ry in th e sound o f th e wind, In th e sound o f a few le a v e s, Which i s th e sound o f th e la n d F u ll o f th e sane wind That i s blow ing in th e same b a re p la c e For th e l i s t e n e r, who l i s t e n s in th e snow, And, n o th in g h im se lf, b eholds N othing t h a t i s n o t th e re and th e n o th in g t h a t i s (S tev en s, 1967, p* 5 ^) The review o f c u rre n t a v a ila b le l i t e r a t u r e in d ic a te d s e v e ra l atte m p ts to b le n d Taoism w ith W estern p sy ch o th erapy. Jung (1931) was th e f i r s t to see th e b e n e f it Taoism had to o f f e r modem psychoth e ra p y. Fromm ( e t. a l., I960) attem p ted a b lend o f Zen Buddhism and p sy c h o a n a ly sis. W atts (1961) p o in te d out how E a ste rn ways o f li b e r a tio n resem ble W estern p sy ch o th erapy. M aslow 's (1973) Theory Z su g g ested th a t an e f f e c tiv e t h e r a p is t i s a c tu a lly a T a o is t g u id e. S ev eral a tte m p ts were th en made to b le n d Taoism w ith G e s ta lt psychotherapy (Sm ith, 1976, D o elser, 1978). At th e same tim e, Brandon (1976) d e scrib e d how Zen could be used i n a s o c ia l work c o n te x t. Bolen (1979), a Jungian a n a ly s t, made th e most r e c e n t a tte m p t to

12 b lend Taoism w ith W estern p sy choth erapy. M ethodology For p u rp o ses o f t h i s stu d y, a th e o ry o f p e r s o n a lity has been c o n s tru c te d b ased on d e lin e a tio n s used in a m ajor t e x t in th e f i e l d o f co u n selin g and psych o th erap y (P e rv in, 1975)* F ive c o n s tru c ts were w ritte n f o r th e p r a c tic e o f in d iv id u a l p sy ch o th erapy. The cons tr u c t s can in d ic a te th e th e o ry to be u s e fu l o r n o t u s e fu l (H all & L indsay, 1977)* They go on to say t h a t " i f a th e o ry i s e v e n tu a lly to make a c o n trib u tio n in an e m p iric a l d is c ip lin e i t must p o sse ss some means f o r e m p iric a l tr a n s la tio n " (p. 12). C onsequently, th e purpose o f t h i s stu d y was to develop a new th e ra p e u tic approach and to make an i n i t i a l assessm en t o f i t s u t i l i t y. The assessm ent c o n s titu te s th e v a lid a tio n p a r t o f th e d is s e r t a t i o n. E m p irical a c tio n re s e a rc h, f i r s t d e lin e a te d by C hein, Cook, and H arding (1 9 ^8 ), was th e re s e a rc h method used to a s s e s s th e u t i l i t y o f th e ap p ro ach. N u tta ll and Iv ey (1978) have updated t h i s p a r t i c u l a r re s e a rc h method accord in g to b o th d e f in i tio n and p ro c e d u re. E m p irical a c tio n re s e a rc h in v o lv e s u sin g a c e r ta in ty p e o f in te r v e n tio n and keep in g a c c u ra te re c o rd s o f what i s done and what h appens. I t i s analogous to th e c l i n i c a l wisdom developed by a p h y sic ia n who keeps tr a c k o f i l l n e s se s, th e rem edies p re s c rib e d, and th e r e s u l t s o b ta in ed from th e d i f f e r e n t in te r v e n tio n s. The s p e c if i c s te p s a re : (1 ) perfo rm in g th e in te r v e n tio n ; (2) keeping a r e cord o f th e a c t i v i t i e s th e h e lp e r engages in and th e c l ie n ts r e a c tio n s to th e se a c t i v i t i e s ; and (3 ) a s s e s s in g th e e f f e c t s o f th e a c t i v i t i e s on th e c l i e n t s, and making changes in th e in te r v e n tio n s acc o rd in g to th e r e s u l t s (p. & ).

N u tta ll and Iv ey (1978) f u r t h e r c l a r i f y e m p iric a l a c tio n re se a rc h a s making no a tte m p ts a t u s in g c o n tro l groups, a d m in is te rin g p re - and p o st-m e asu re s, o r u sin g v a lid and r e l i a b l e m easures and, in summation, conclude t h a t th e "e m p iric a l a c tio n re s e a rc h approach i s r e a l l y a s o p h is tic a te d common sense approach to th e problem s o f th e d ay -to -d a y p r a c tic e " (p. 8 7 ). S upport f o r t h i s ty p e o f re s e a rc h in v e s tig a tio n i s o ffe re d by Dukes (1965): " re s e a rc h on o n ly o n e,su b je c t may, by c la r if y in g q u e s tio n s, d e fin in g v a r ia b le s, and in d ic a tin g ap p ro aches, make s u b s ta n tia l c o n trib u tio n s to th e stu d y o f b ehav io r" ( p.?8). An a d d itio n a l concern i s o ffe re d by Sidman ( i 960): "E x p lo rato ry work i s co n sid ere d n e c e ssa ry because i t se rv e s to m inim ize th e amount o f tim e and e f f o r t t h a t would o th e rw ise be sp e n t on t e s t s o f in c o rre c t h y p o th e sis, o r on in adeq u ate t e s t s o f c o r r e c t hypoth e s is " (p. 2 1 8 ). Sidm an's f i n a l sta te m e n t h o ld s th e key fo r p u t tin g th e method o f re s e a rc h in t o p e rs p e c tiv e. T hat i s, one cannot la y o u t com pletely new groundwork and a ls o a d e q u a te ly perform ex p erim en tal a s opposed to e m p iric a l re s e a rc h. Thus, alth o u g h th e re s e a rc h d a ta a r e n o t e x p e rim e n ta lly g e n e ra liz a b le o r cau sab le, e m p iric a l a c tio n r e s e a rc h was th e fav o red re s e a rc h approach f o r e x p lo ra tio n o f T a o is t p sy ch o th erapy. N u tta ll and Iv e y (1978) a re in co n c e rt w ith t h i s p e rs p e c tiv e. T hat i s, th e y l i s t e m p iric a l a c tio n re s e a rc h a s a n e c e ssa ry re s e a rc h sta g e o r s te p w hich must be f u l f i l l e d b e fo re th e u n d e rta k in g o f experim en tal a c tio n r e s e a r c h.

14 Method The re s e a rc h d esig n used i l l u s t r a t i v e case s tu d ie s which p ro v id e d a d ir e c t r e p lic a t io n c a lle d in te r s u b je c t r e p lic a t io n by Sidman ( i 960). "As a c r ite r io n o f r e l i a b i l i t y and g e n e r a lity, in te r s u b je c t r e p lic a tio n i s a more pow erful to o l th a n in te rg ro u p r e p lic a tio n " (Sidman, I960, p. 75)* The re s e a rc h e r was th e th e r a p is t u sin g th e c o n s tru c ts d e riv e d from th e p e r s o n a lity th e o ry. The c l i e n t s were two u n iv e r s ity s tu d e n ts w ith p e rso n a l concerns who e x h ib ite d dem ographics which would q u a lif y them f o r th e ra p y o f e ig h t o r le s s s e s s io n s. The m ajor dem ographic c r i t e r i a f o r th e ra p y o f th i s le n g th a re : (1) a p rev io u s a b i l i t y to cope, (2) an a c u te o n set o f th e concern, ( 3 ) a high le v e l o f m o tiv a tio n, (4 ) a f a i r degree o f em otional e x p re ssiv e n e ss, and (5) a good o u ts id e r e la tio n s h ip (B u tch er & K oss, 1978) A ll s e s sio n s were reco rd ed on m agnetic ta p e. T reatm ents g o a ls were w ritte n and d i r e c t l y p a ire d w ith each o f th e f iv e c o n s tr u c ts. The ta p e re c o rd in g s were examined f o r c o n s tru c ts used a s w ell a s c l ie n t resp o n ses to th e c o n s tru c ts. Each case was th e n lo n g itu d in a lly developed and documented by s ig n if i c a n t v e r batim th e ra p e u tic in t e r a c t io n s. F u rtherm ore, a s u b je c tiv e a s s e s s ment was made a s to th e e f f e c t s o f th e c o n s tru c ts used w ith each c l i e n t. T his was accom plished by exam ining what s p e c if ic c o n s tru c t was most h e lp fu l as evidenced by which tre a tm e n t g o a ls were accomp lis h e d. Follow ing th e l i n e o f e m p iric a l a c tio n re s e a rc h, r e

15 commendations were su g g ested f o r f u r th e r developm ent o f t h i s approach b ased on d a ta g lean ed from th e assessm en t. I n summary, t h i s stu d y w ill develop a new th e ra p e u tic approach and use th e e m p iric a l a c tio n re s e a rc h method to make an i n i t i a l assessm en t o f th e approaches u t i l i t y. C hapter I I w ill develop a th e o ry o f p e r s o n a lity and f iv e psychotherapy c o n s tru c ts based on T a o is t p h ilo so p h y. C hapter I I I w ill document th e c o n s tru c ts use a s w ell a s c l ie n t r e a c tio n s. T his docum entation c o n s titu te s p a r ts one and two o f N u ta ll and I v e y 's (1978) re s e a rc h appro ach. In C h ap ter IV, an assessm ent w ill be made, accord in g to N u tta ll and I v e y 's t h i r d p a r t, o f th e in te rv e n tio n s e f f e c ts on th e c l i e n t s.

CHAPTER I I THEORY AND APPLICATION Theory o f P e r s o n a lity W estern th e o r ie s o f p e r s o n a lity s t r e s s th e in d iv id u a l, a c h ie v e m ent, m o tiv a tio n, r a t i o n a l l y d e fin e d ev id en ce, and d ir e c t s e l f d is c lo s u re. These f a c to r s a re used to d e fin e system s o f re s o lv in g em o tio n al c o n f lic t and prom oting ad ju stm en t to s o c ie ty. A m ajor concept th a t d e fin e s W estern p e r s o n a lity th e o ry i s th a t th e i n d i v i d u a l i s n o t o n ly fre e b u t somehow a lo o f from th e r e s t o f th e u n i v e rse (P ed ersen, 1977). C onsequently, W estern p e r s o n a lity th e o ry assum es a s e p a ra tio n and o p p o sitio n o f th e in d iv id u a l and e n v iro n m ent, b u ild in g system s which assume th e ego t o be an a c tiv e ly in d ependent o b se rv e r and c o n tro lle r o f th e environm ent. I n c o n tra s t, T a o is t p h ilo so p h y s t r e s s e s e x p e r ie n tia l ev id en ce, i n t u i t i v e lo g ic, and th e in t e r r e la te d n e s s o f a l l th in g s. These f a c to r s a re n o t used to re s o lv e c o n f lic t, b u t to tra n sc e n d i t th ro u g h accep tan ce o f th e c o n f lic t. The ta s k f o r a T a o is t i s n o t to s e p a ra te ego from th e environm ent b u t to r e l a t e such elem ents in t o one in te rd e p e n d e n t u n i t. i s based on T a o is t p h ilo so p h y. The fo llo w in g th e o ry o f p e r s o n a lity The th e o ry w ill be d e lin e a te d a c c o rd in g to a W estern (P e rv in, 1975) paradigm. The d iv is io n s o f th e paradigm a re view o f man, s tr u c tu r e o f p e r s o n a lity, p ro c e ss o f 16

17 p e r s o n a lity, developm ent o f p e r s o n a lity, psychopathology, and change. View o f Man B asic to th e view o f man p e rs p e c tiv e a re. th e fo llo w in g q u e stio n s: I s man b a s ic a lly good o r s e lf - a c tu a liz in g? I s man b a s ic a lly bad o r h e d o n istic? I s man b o th good and bad? A ccording to Taoism and Zen, man i s b o th good and bad; however, good and bad a re p a r t o f th e same system and, th u s, man sim ply i s. T his e x p la n a tio n o f th e p o la r i ty o f man i s a t th e v ery ro o ts o f Taoism and Zen. Im p o rta n tly, i t i s n o t to be confused w ith id e a s o f o p p o sitio n o r c o n f l i c t. I n th e m etaphors o f o th e r c u ltu r e s, l i g h t i s a t war w ith d a rk n e ss, l i f e w ith d e a th, good w ith e v i l, th e p o s itiv e w ith th e n e g a tiv e, and th u s an id e a lism to c u ltiv a te th e form er and be r i d o f th e l a t t e r flo u r is h e s th ro u g h o u t th e w orld. To th e tr a d itio n a l, way o f Chinese th in k in g, t h i s i s a s incom prehensible a s an e l e c t r i c c u rre n t w ith o u t b o th p o s itiv e and n e g a tiv e p o le s, f o r p o la r ity i s th e p r in c ip le t h a t + and -, n o rth and so u th, a re d if f e r e n t a s p e c ts o f one and th e same system, and t h a t th e d isap p earan ce o f e i t h e r one o f them would be th e d isap p earan ce o f th e system (W atts, 1975 > PP- 1 9-2 0 ). Furtherm ore, t h i s system i s a m p lifie d to th e p o in t where a l l th in g s in o n e 's environm ent, in d eed, in th e u n iv e rse, a re th e same a s, o r in s e p e ra b le from, o n e s e lf. I n summary, t h i s p r in c i p le which i s c a lle d y in -y an g i s n o t a t r a d i t i o n a l d u a l i s t i c view o f th e n a tu re o f th in g s, b u t r a th e r an e x p l i c i t d u a lity e x p re ssin g an im p lic it u n ity in a l l th in g s. The second p a r t o f t h i s view o f man w ill d is c u s s th e d e f i n i tio n o f th e Tao. The Tao Te Ching opens w ith "The way t h a t can be to ld o f i s n o t an unvarying way; th e names th a t can be named a re

n o t u nvarying names" (W aley, 1958, p. 1^1). Names a re u n its o f d e s c r ip tio n ; naming and d e s c rib in g make n a tu re seem to c o n s is t o f s e p e ra te u n i t s. Lao Tzu i s e x p re ssin g t h a t words, e x p la n a tio n s, and d e f in itio n s o f th e Tao can n ev er he th e Tao because no th in g can be is o la te d o r u n re la te d to any o th e r th in g in th e u n iv e rs e. I n t h i s manner, th e Tao t h a t can be spoken o f can n o t be th e r e a l Tao. T h is i s an im p o rtan t T a o is t co n cept, however, w ritte n words a r e th e form at o f t h i s p r e s e n ta tio n. The words and p h rases used to communicate th e Tao a re : a way o f b ein g, a flow, a d r i f t, o r th e course o f n a tu re. Both Lao Tzu (W aley, 1958) and Chuang Tzu (M erton, 19&5) use 'the flow o f w ater as th e p r in c ip le m etaphor o f th e Tao. Through t h i s m etaphor, i t i s p o s s ib le to u n d erstan d Lao T z u 's in s is te n c e th a t th e way th a t can be spoken o f i s n o t th e way, f o r " a i r and w ater cannot be c u t o r c lu tc h e d, and t h e i r flow ceases when th e y a re en c lo se d. There i s no way o f p u tti n g a stream in a b u ck et o r th e wind in a bag" (W atts, 1975, P* ^ 2 ). I n th e e a r l i e r d is c u s s io n o f y in -y an g, i t was s ta te d th a t e v e ry th in g o r ev en t i s what i t i s in r e la tio n to a l l o th e rs. In t h i s t h i r d p a r t o f th e view o f man d is c u s s io n, th a t view o f th e Tao i s a m p lifie d on th e p r in c ip le t h a t i f e v e ry th in g i s allow ed to go i t s own way, a s in th e flow o f w ater, p sy c h o lo g ic a l harmony, and th e harmony o f th e u n iv e rse w ill b e. Thus, a p e rs o n 's own way i s a c tu a lly th e way o f th e u n iv e rs e, which i s th e Ta,o. M oreover, s in c e a l l people a re p a r t o f t h i s i n t e r r e l a t e d flow, p e rso n s w ill ach iev e p sy c h o lo g ic a l harmony i f th e y a re n o t fo rced

19 in to some a r t i f i c i a l o r a r b i t r a r y concept o f th e n a tu re o f th in g s. The p r in c ip le o f n o n a c tio n, wu-wei, i s th e way, in term s o f th e Tao, o f a llo w in g th in g s to be o r a c tin g w ith in th e tr u e n a tu re o f th in g s. Wu-wei " i s n o t to be considered, i n e r t i a, la z in e s s, l a i s s e z - f a i r e, o r mere p a s s iv ity " (W atts, 1975» P 75) Wu-wei, a s n o t- tr y in g, means "going w ith th e g ra in, r o llin g w ith th e punch, swimming w ith th e c u rre n t, trim m ing th e s a i l s to th e wind, ta k in g th e tid e a t i t s flo o d, and sto o p in g to conquer" (W atts, 1975 > P* 75)* Wu-wei i s th u s th e l i f e - s t y l e o f one who fo llo w s th e Tao, and must be u n d ersto o d p rim a rily a s a form o f in t e llig e n c e t h a t i s, o f knowing th e p r in c ip le s, s tr u c tu r e s, and tre n d s o f human a f f a i r s so w ell th a t one u ses th e l e a s t amount o f energy in d e a lin g w ith them. But t h i s in te llig e n c e i s, as we have seen, n o t sim ply i n t e l l e c t u a l ; i t i s a ls o th e "unconscious" in te llig e n c e o f th e whole organism and, in p a r tic u la r, th e in n a te wisdom o f th e nervous system. Wuwei i s a com bination o f t h i s wisdom w ith ta k in g th e l i n e o f l e a s t r e s is ta n c e in a l l o f o n e 's a c tio n s (W atts, 1975» P 7 6 ). The theme o f t h i s e x p la n a tio n i s th a t wu-wei i s th e flow o f w ell b eing which allo w s one to be in harmony w ith a l l th in g s. In c o n tra s t to t h i s view o f man a re th e views which use a d u a l i s t i c s ta n c e and a fo rc e o f p e rs o n a l v i o l i t i o n d esig n ed to improve th in g s. From th e T a o is t p e rs p e c tiv e, th e o rie s o f t h i s s o r t move one away from o n e 's tr u e n a tu re, a g g rav a te o n e 's i l l u s i o n o f c o n tro l, and keep one from tr u s tin g in o n e s e lf and o th e rs. T a o is t philo so p h y a s s e r ts t h a t th e tr u e n a tu re i s one which "depends on a confidence and la c k o f s e l f - f r u s t r a t i n g a n x ie ty which i n tu rn i s d e riv e d from th e in s ig h t th a t in th e course o f n a tu re, and in fo llo w in g th e lin e o f l e a s t r e s is ta n c e, n o th in g can go wrong" (W atts, 1975» P* 122).

20 The s t a t e o f "being in which one liv e s harm oniously w ith th e Tao, th ro u g h wu-wei, i s c a lle d t e, o r v ir tu e o f t e. However, v ir tu e i s r e a l l y q u ite an in c o rre c t u n d erstan d in g o f t e because v ir tu e in t h i s a p p lic a tio n does n o t mean v ir tu e in th e sen se o f m oral r e c t itu d e. I t i s, r a th e r, th e e x p re ssio n o f v ir tu e in h e re n t in a l l th in g s, such a s th e v ir tu e o f th e n a tu ra l h e a lin g p ro c e s s. T h ere fo re, t e i s th e v ir tu e o f t r u s t i n g in wu-wei and y in -y an g a s a u n if ie d sy stem. Te i s th e v i r t u a l i t y, th e g race in l i v i n g which comes n a t u r a lly from th e i n t u i t i v e r e a l iz a t io n o f b ein g one w ith th e Tao (W atts, 1975)«C onsequently, th e T a o is t view o f man a s s e r t s t h a t th e re i s an e x p l i c i t d u a lity e x p re ssin g an im p lic it u n ity in a l l t h i n g s, E very th in g i s p a r t o f a u n iv e rs a l n a tu ra l flow and one can be in psycholo g i c a l harmony w ith i t. The p r in c ip le o f n o n -a c tio n, wu-wei, i s th e way o f allo w in g th in g s to be o r way to a c t w ith in t h i s tru e n a tu re o f th in g s. n a tu re o f th in g s The p sy c h o lo g ic a l sta n c e o f t r u s t i n g in th e tr u e and th e r e s u lta n t power d e riv e d from t h i s sta n c e i s c a lle d t e. S tr u c tu r e o f P e rs o n a lity The s tr u c tu r e o f p e r s o n a lity i s d iv id e d in to two key d e s c rip t i v e c o n c e p ts. These concepts have been p o s tu la te d b y Shunryu Suzuki (1970) a s b ig mind and sm all mind. Tying th e s e concepts to g e th e r w ith th e view o f man d is c u s s io n, b ig mind i s c h a ra c te riz e d by o n e 's a t t i t u d e and b eh av io r which i s c o n s is te n t w ith th e Tao.

21 Sm all mind i s c h a ra c te riz e d by th e W estern d u a l i s t i c sta n c e which i s marked by a s t r i v i n g o r g ra sp in g f o r "im provem ent." Suzuki (1970) c o n sid e rs th e e x p re ssio n o f o n e 's b ig mind to be th e tr u e e x p re ssio n o f th e mind. B ig mind e n t a i l s a p e rv a siv e c a p a c ity o f t r u s t and accep tan ce o f what i s. "W ith b ig mind we a c c e p t each o f o u r e x p e rie n c e s a s i f re c o g n iz in g th e fa c e we see in a m irro r a s o u r own" (S uzuki, 1970, pp. 3 5-3 6 ). B ig mind i s c o n s is te n t w ith th e Tao, t h a t i s, th e view o f m utual i n t e r r e l a t e d n ess o f a l l th in g s ; s u b je c t and o b je c t a re one. N othing comes from o u ts id e y o u r mind. U su a lly we th in k o f o u r mind a s re c e iv in g im p ressio n s and e x p e r ie n c e s from o u ts id e, b u t th a t i s n o t a tr u e u n d ersta n d in g o f o u r mind. The tr u e u n d erstan d in g i s t h a t th e mind in c lu d e s e v e ry th in g ; when you th in k som ething comes from o u ts id e i t means o n ly th a t som ething ap p ears in your m in d...t h is mind i s c a lle d b ig mind (S uzuki, 1970, pp. 3^-35) Sm all mind belo n g s to th e ego dom inated w orld o f s e l f - a s s e r t i n g pow er. As s ta t e d e a r l i e r, t h i s sm all mind i s marked by th e W estern d u a l i s t i c p s y c h o lo g ic a l s ta n c e. From th e T a o is t p e rs p e c tiv e, t h i s sta n c e ty p i c a l l y m o tiv ates b e h a v io r th ro u g h id e a lis m, and th e r e s u l t a n t g u i l t produced by e g o -c e n te re d a tte m p ts to dom inate and c o n tro l e x p e rie n c e. " I f your mind i s r e la te d to som ething o u ts id e i t s e l f, t h a t mind i s a sm all mind, a lim ite d mind" (S uzuki, 1970, p. 35)* Sm all mind i s th e n, th e p e rc e p tio n o f s u b je c t and o b je c t a s d i s t i n c t, s e p a ra te e n t i t i e s w ith no im p lic it o neness.

22 P ro cess o f P e rs o n a lity The p e r s o n a lity p ro c e ss w ill a d d re ss th e m o tiv a tio n a l is s u e o f why p erso n s move in s p e c if i c d ir e c tio n s. A ccording to Maslow (195^)* i t i s l i k e l y t h a t p erso n s a re s tim u la te d by p h y s io lo g ic a l needs, s e lf - a c tu a liz in g te n d e n c ie s, and s o c ia l n eed s. P ersons may allo w th e se needs to e x i s t in a h ig mind sense by l e t t i n g go o f p e rso n a l v i o l i t i o n and a c c e p tin g th in g s a s th e y a r e. T his p ro c e ss i s one o f u sin g wu-wei to be in harmony w ith th e Tao. Wu-wei i s to r o l l w ith e x p erien ces and fe e lin g s a s th ey come and go, l i k e a b a l l in a m ountain stream, though a c tu a lly th e re i s no b a l l a p a r t from th e co n v o lu tio n s and w iggles o f th e stream i t s e l f. T his i s c a lle d "flow in g w ith th e moment," though i t can happen o n ly when i t i s c le a r th a t th e re i s n o th in g e ls e to do sin c e th e re i s no ex p erien ce which i s n o t now. T his nowstream in g i s th e Tao i t s e l f, and when t h i s i s c le a r innume ra b le problem s v a n ish (W atts, 1975» P* 96) I n c o n s tr a s t to t h i s p sy c h o lo g ic a l s ta n c e, one may make a l l s o r ts o f e f f o r t s to reduce p h y s io lo g ic a l te n s io n, become s e l f - a c tu a liz in g, o r re c e iv e s o c ia l p r a is e. T his s ta n c e i s alw ays i n c o n s is te n t w ith th e Tao and r e s u l t s in in c re a s e d te n s io n and a n x ie ty. F or a s lo n g a s th e re i s th e.n o tio n o r o u rse lv e s as someth in g d if f e r e n t from th e Tao, a l l kin d s o f te n sio n s b u ild up betw een "me" on th e one hand, and "ex p erience" on th e o th e r. No a c tio n, no fo rc e (w ei) w ill g e t r i d o f t h i s te n sio n a r is i n g from th e d u a lity o f th e knower and th e known, j u s t a s one cannot blow away th e n ig h t. L ig h t, o r i n t u i t i v e u n d e rsta n d in g, alo n e w ill d is s ip a te th e d a rk n e ss. As w ith th e b a l l in th e m ountain stream, th e re i s no r e s is ta n c e to th e up when going up, and no r e s is ta n c e to th e down when going down. To r e s i s t i s to g e t s e a s ic k (W atts, 1975* P- 97)-