Hydrometallurgy 83 (2006) 195 203 www.elsevier.com/locate/hydromet Immobilization of heavy metals in the saturated zone by sorption and in situ bioprecipitation processes S. Van Roy, K. Vanbroekhoven, W. Dejonghe, L. Diels VITO, Flemish Institute for Technological Research, Environmental and Process Technology, Boeretang 200, 2400 Mol, Belgium Available online 3 May 2006 Abstract An ex-mining site located in Katowice, Poland, where silver, zinc and lead mining along with other activities took place for decades is now heavily contaminated with heavy metals. Especially the Quaternary and Triassic aquifers and surface water in the surrounding area are polluted. One serious risk is the threat of the contamination to drinking water, since the Triassic aquifer provides drinking water for more than 300000 inhabitants. The main pollutants of concern are B, Ba, Zn, Cd, Cu, As and Sr. Remediation measures proposed for the Quaternary aquifer include a combination of natural attenuation, sorption barriers and in situ bioprecipitation. Dolomites, Fly Ash, and Peat are considered as suitable adsorbent materials for removing barium and strontium from the contaminated groundwater. However, no adsorbent has been found to efficiently remove B. In situ bioprecipitation (ISBP), a process during which sulfate reducing bacteria are stimulated by the addition of various C-sources resulting in the reduction of sulfate to sulfide and the concomitant precipitation of heavy metals, has been tested on both clay and sand aquifer taken from the site. Zn, Cu and sulfate were removed in the sandy and in the clayey aquifer material. In situ bioprecipitation combined with sorption was evaluated over a 120 days time period for the Triassic aquifer. Zeolites in combination with HRC or molasses gave the best results, removing 100% of Ba and Sr in less than 2 days and 35% of B after 120 days. However, no sulfate was removed under these conditions. In addition, when Zeolite was solely or combined with HRC or molasses, >98% Zn was removed in 88 days. Zn was also removed using MRC, lactate, molasses, HRC and Diatomic Earth in combination with HRC or molasses. A combination of ISBP and sorption offers the potential to contain the metal contamination in this Triassic aquifer. 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: In situ bioprecipitation; Sorption; Management approach for metals; Megasite 1. Introduction Tarnowskie Góry (Katowice, Poland) is a 84 ha exmining site which exploited silver, zinc and lead ores for many centuries. Other activities practiced on this site Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: sandra.vanroy@vito.be (S. Van Roy), karolien.vanbroekhoven@vito.be (K. Vanbroekhoven), winnie.dejonghe@vito.be (W. Dejonghe), ludo.diels@vito.be (L. Diels). include the production of potassium aluminium sulfate, and sulfuric acid, later on production of oil paint pigments like boric acid (H 3 BO 3 ), barium chloride (BaCl 2 ) and sodium perborate (NaBO 3 ). These activities have led to serious contamination of the Quaternary and underlying Triassic aquifer, and surrounding surface waters such as the Stola river. The Triassic aquifer provides drinking water for more than 300 000 inhabitants. Since drinking water standards are under threat from this contamination, the Government has investigated various remediation strategies. So far, dig and 0304-386X/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2006.03.024
196 S. Van Roy et al. / Hydrometallurgy 83 (2006) 195 203 dump remediation measures have been undertaken involving the installation of a few controlled landfills. However, these have not provided sufficient guarantee that contamination is under control. The main pollutants are B, Ba, Zn, Cd, Cu, As and Sr (Fig. 1) and the pollution is located in the unsaturated soil, the saturated Fig. 1. Map of the Tarnowskie Güry megasite (Poland) and relevant concentrations of heavy metals. Blue spheres indicate Zn concentrations above 500 μg/l, green spheres Cu concentrations above 100 μg/l, and purple spheres As concentrations above 40 μg/l.
S. Van Roy et al. / Hydrometallurgy 83 (2006) 195 203 197 soil or aquifer, groundwater and surface water. The Quaternary aquifer is already contaminated and remediation measures proposed include a combination of natural attenuation, sorption barriers and in situ bioprecipitation. The Triassic aquifer is not yet fully contaminated and the aim is to prevent further contamination, either by pump and treat or immobilization of the pollutants in the Quaternary aquifer. In this work, in situ bioprecipitation and/or sorption of metals present in groundwater of the Triassic and the Quaternary aquifer were investigated. In situ bioprecipitation (ISBP) is a process during which sulfate reducing bacteria are stimulated by the addition of various carbon sources (electron donor) and sulfate is reduced to sulfides that concomitantly precipitate the heavy metals. Different adsorbents were also tested in combination with ISBP with different groundwaters, a sequential extraction of these aquifers was performed to obtain information on the precipitates formed during in situ bioprecipitation and on the main binding sites, the strength of metal binding to particulates and the phase associations of trace elements in aquifer samples. This increased understanding of the geochemical processes governing heavy metal immobilization during in situ precipitation [1]. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Aquifer and groundwater samples Both groundwater and aquifer material from two different geological formations, i.e., Quaternary and Triassic, were used. Four different aquifer samples, either clayey (p8-2 and p28-5) or sandy (p24-6 and p6-4), and corresponding groundwater samples from the Quaternary aquifer were used for ISBP experiments while 13 groundwaters were used in sorption experiments. Contaminated (S1) and uncontaminated (S2) Triassic aquifer material were studied using combined sorption/isbp experiments. All groundwater samples have been summarized in Table 1. All set-ups were performed on singular samples. 2.2. In situ bioprecipitation microcosm experiments For the construction of microcosms, 80 g of aquifer was mixed with 186 ml of groundwater in 250 ml serum bottles. Sterile, anoxic solutions that contained either acetate, lactate, molasses, Hydrogen Release Compound or Metals Removing Compound (HRC / MRC, Regenesis) were amended with a final carbon concentration of 0.02% (w/v). In microcosms containing Quaternary aquifer samples, the impact of 2 redox manipulating compounds (RMC) on sulfide production and metal precipitation was also examined. Two control experiments were set up, an abiotic control containing 0.0175% (w/v) formaldehyde and a natural attenuation control, which was not amended with an extra C-source. In this presentation only two carbon sources are shown. Serum bottles were sealed using gas-tight butyl rubber stoppers, incubated statically at room temperature and under a N 2 /CO 2 /H 2 (87.5/7.5/5 %) atmosphere. Samples were every week visually examined for blackening, indicative for sulfide precipitation. Other parameters like Eh, ph, sulfate content and metal concentration (Zn, Cd, Cu, B, Ba, Sr) were analyzed every 2 weeks. Sulfate analysis was monitored to follow sulfide formation and subsequent immobilization of heavy metals as sulfides. Furthermore, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) was measured to get an idea about the consumption of electron donor/c-source by the microbial community and the sulfate reducing Table 1 Characteristics of the used groundwater samples Sample ph [SO 2 4 ] (mg/l) [Zn] (μg/l) [Cu] (μg/l) [Ba] (μg/l) [Cd] (μg/l) [B] (μg/l) [Sr] (μg/l) P28 6,7 170 56 <10 154 <3 25 300 556 P6 6,6 53 89 19 39 <3 671 72 P24 5,6 36 826 <10 94 8,9 384 86 P24A 7,3 470 69 <10 55 <3 22 000 747 P27A 5,9 580 254 000 <10 41 1370 41 400 2860 PT8 7,3 310 55 <10 28 <3 39 300 606 PT7 5,6 1200 8070 94 800 51 212 40 900 6630 PQ1 7 590 596 <10 44 4,7 102 000 456 P29 4,9 420 404 95 12 7,8 88 100 243 P14 7 <1 1680 33 59 400 6,3 6510 9840 P20 6,8 54 66 <10 37 <3 1210 99 P5 5,4 850 404 653 25 6,9 216 000 1410 P9 5,2 73 877 118 41 8,4 508 182
198 S. Van Roy et al. / Hydrometallurgy 83 (2006) 195 203 Table 2 Representation of removal capacities of heavy metals in different groundwaters using different adsorbents Sorbent/metal Sr B Ba Cu Zn Cd Zeolite X 98% >99% >99% Zeolite 50/51 98% >99% >99% Clinopthilolite 92% Mordenite 98% PAsXP 89% 60% PAsEP 94% 60% PAsX5P 95% 60% GAC1 96% >99% >99% Fly Ash 50/51 >99% >99% Calcined Magnesite >99% >99% >99% Metasorb 93% >99% Only the highest removal capacities are presented; PAs: aqua-bind ; GAC1: active carbon. bacteria specifically. Metal removal in Quaternary aquifer samples was studied by in situ bioprecipitation only, whereas metal removal in samples from the Triassic formation was studied by ISBP and by ISBP combined with sorption by addition of several adsorbents like Zeolites, Diatomic Earth and Dolomites. The appropriate conditions were selected based on results expected, i.e., either Zeolite solely or Zeolite combined with a carbon source to examine the effect on Zn removal, either carbon source solely or carbon source combined with Zeolite to examine the impact on element removal (B, Ba, Sr). 2.3. Sorption microcosm experiments Groundwater (20 ml) was mixed with either 0.5 g or 2 g adsorbent in 25 ml serum bottles. Twenty-two different adsorbents were used including Fly Ash (2 types), natural (7 types) and manipulated (7 types) Zeolites, granular activated carbon (GAC, 2 types), redox manipulating compounds (RMC, 3 types) and compost. Mixed groundwater samples were incubated during 24 h with the adsorbents, while groundwater samples containing RMC and compost were sampled after 1 week, 2 weeks and 1 month. Prior to and after incubation, the heavy metals were measured by ICP- AES (Accuracy between 3 and 20 μg/l) and ph was measured. 2.4. Sequential extraction procedure A modified model of the extraction method used by Akcay et al. [2] was applied. One extra step has been added to this protocol, i.e., a fraction leachable with synthetic groundwater was determined prior to the first step with MgCl 2. Furthermore, the last extraction step with HNO 3 /HF/HCLO/HCL was omitted in the sequential extraction procedure. So, a five-step extraction scheme was used including the determination of a leached fraction with synthetic groundwater (1), an exchangeable fraction with MgCl 2 (2), a carbonate fraction with NaAc (3), an Fe Mn oxide fraction with NH 2 OH HCl (4), and an organic fraction with NH 4 AC/ HNO 3 /H 2 O 2 (5). 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Removal of metals in Quaternary groundwater samples by sorption In view of using a reactive sorption barrier to contain the metal contamination of the groundwater in the Quaternary aquifer, several adsorbents were tested in order to define metal removal capacity from the 13 types of groundwater that were used (Table 2). 7 6,5 ph 6 5,5 5 p28-5 cl abiotic p28-5 cl molasses p6-4 s abiotic p6-4 s molasses 4,5 4 0 20 40 60 80 Fig. 2. Effect of the addition of molasses on the ph of the sandy (s) or clayey (c) Quaternary aquifer.
S. Van Roy et al. / Hydrometallurgy 83 (2006) 195 203 199 100 10 [Zn] (mg/l) 1 0,1 0,01 p28-5 cl abiotic p28-5 cl molasses p6-4 s abiotic p6-4 s molasses 0,001 0,0001 0 20 40 60 80 100 Fig. 3. Evolution of the Zn concentration in the sandy (s) and clayey (cl) Quaternary aquifer during in situ bioprecipitation in abiotic and molasses stimulated microcosms. Several common conclusions were that the ph increased with 2 to 3 ph units in the conditions containing Fly Ash 50/51, Zeolite 50/51, Zeolite X, Metasorb, Calcined Magnesite, GACB and GAC1. There was a good removal of Sr in the conditions to which Zeolite X, Zeolite 50/51, Clinopthilolite, Mordenite, PAsXP, PAsEP, PAsX5L and GAC1 were added. The maximum removal percentage of Sr was 86 98%. B could be removed with 3 types of manipulated Zeolite. However, the maximum percentage of B removal by these three adsorbents was about 60% and only when at least 2 g adsorbent was used. For only one specific groundwater namely P9, B could be removed for more than 90% but only when Metasorb was used. Zeolite X and GAC1 are the best adsorbents for Ba for each type of groundwater. Fly Ash 50/51, Zeolite 50/51 and Calcined Magnesite gave a removal percentage of more than 99% for Cu and Zn. Cd was removed by Zeolite X, Calcined Magnesite and GAC1. All these removal capacities are summarized in Table 2. Several samples of RMC were used and tested in combination with the groundwater in order to reduce the redox potential and in that way the mobility of some metals. The ph increased by approximately 1 unit after addition of RMC for 3 types of groundwater, i.e., P28, P6, and P24. Sr and B could not be removed with RMC. The use of RMC gave a good removal for Ba and Cd for almost all groundwater samples used except for respectively P14 and P27A groundwater samples. Addition of RMC resulted in a Zn removal of 40% up to 90% while a Cu removal capacity of 100% was noticed with all types of RMC. 3.2. In situ bioprecipitation of elements in microcosm experiments using Quaternary aquifer The potential for heavy metal immobilization by indirect sulfide precipitation induced by sulfate reducing 250 200 [SO4] (mg/l) 150 100 p28-5 cl abiotic p28-5 cl molasses p6-4 s abiotic p6-4 s molasses 50 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Fig. 4. Evolution of the sulfate concentration in the sandy (s) and clayey (cl) Quaternary aquifer during in situ bioprecipitation in abiotic and molasses stimulated microcosms.
200 S. Van Roy et al. / Hydrometallurgy 83 (2006) 195 203 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Ba B Fe Sr Zn organic fraction Fe-Mn-oxide fraction carbonate fraction exchangeable fraction leached fraction Fig. 5. Distribution of the metals Ba, B, Fe, Sr and Zn in various fractions determined by sequential extraction of aquifer in the natural attenuation microcosm (so no addition of C-source). activity was examined by using 4 different Quaternary aquifer/groundwater samples of which were two clayey and were two sandy. Since not only heavy metals were present that are known to precipitate easily with sulfides like Zn and Cd, the impact of in situ bioprecipitation on these other elements like B, Ba, Sr was also studied. As shown in Fig. 2, the ph decreased by almost one unit in the clay-containing microcosms (p28 5cl) after supplying molasses as C-source. However, in the sandcontaining microcosms (p6 4s) the ph change was only 0.5 ph log unit after the addition of molasses. This acidification could be explained by the fact that molasses contains about 40% glucose that is used as C-6 compound in microbial fermentation and fermented into volatile fatty acids like acetic acid which in turn acidify the aquifer/groundwater solution [3]. Apparently, this acidification often takes place in experiments where molasses is added and seems crucial for the success of sulfide production and metal precipitation as seen in other experiments performed in our laboratory. Furthermore, it is hypothesized that molasses complexes metals partly and therefore distorts the picture of metal immobilization. Further research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms underlying this observation. As shown in Fig. 3, the Zn concentration decreased after the addition of molasses to the microcosms containing clay as well as sand. In both types of microcosms, the Zn removal was completed after 3 months of incubation. This removal was partly dedicated to ISBP since sulfate was consumed (Fig. 4). However, a big part of the observed Zn removal is due to abiotic processes since in the dead control conditions of the sandy microcosm Zn was removed for 93% while in the microcosm containing clay, Zn was removed for 74%. When HRC was added to the sandy and clayey Quaternary aquifer, Zn was first released but after 1 month of incubation Zn was removed (data not shown). Sr could only be removed in the sand containing condition p24 6s to which RMC was added but only to an extent of 28% to 33%. In all other conditions, Sr was released. Also Ba was released in 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Ba B Fe Sr Zn organic fraction Fe-Mn-oxide fraction carbonate fraction exchangeable fraction leached fraction Fig. 6. Distribution of the metals Ba, B, Fe, Sr and Zn in various fractions determined by sequential extraction of aquifer in the microcosm stimulated by acetate and a RMC.
S. Van Roy et al. / Hydrometallurgy 83 (2006) 195 203 201 100000 10000 [Sr] (µg/l) 1000 100 10 S1 S1 + abiotic S1 HRC + Zeolite S1 HRC S1 molasses + Zeolite S1 molasses 1 0,1 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Fig. 7. Evolution of Sr concentration in the contaminated S1 Triassic aquifer containing microcosms. almost every condition. However, in the clayey condition p8 2cl to which molasses was added, Ba was released initially but finally removed for about 43%. Also in the condition p24 6s with RMC, Ba was released initially but after 2 months the removal percentage was about 45%. In all sandy conditions B was released except in the two controls and the condition with acetate of p24 6s. In the clayey condition p8 2cl B could be removed for 10% to 30%. In all conditions of p28 5cl B was released (data not shown). Sequential extraction was performed on aquifer samples from microcosms studied for natural attenuation and for ISBP after stimulation by different C- sources like molasses and acetate. Our experimental results show that in the condition with molasses, in comparison with the natural attenuation condition (without additional C-source), the concentration of Fe, Ba, Sr and Zn decreased in the carbonate fraction while the concentration of Fe and Zn increased a little in the Fe Mn oxide fraction and the organic fraction contrary to the Ba concentration that increased a little in the Fe Mn oxide and the exchangeable fraction. There was a big increase of Sr in the less stable exchangeable fraction. B remained in the same fractions in the natural attenuation and the condition inoculated with molasses (data not shown). But, better results concerning the stability of heavy metals were obtained in the presence of acetate. Namely, the Zn, B and Fe concentration in the Fe Mn oxide and organic fraction increased stronger in the condition with acetate and RMC compared to the natural attenuation condition (Figs. 5 and 6). The heavy metals in this fraction are hardly available because they are bound relatively strongly either to Fe-oxyhydroxides or precipitated as sulfides. The metals in the organic fraction might indeed be derived from metal sulfides [4]. In comparison with Zn and Fe, low concentrations of Ba, Sr, and B occur in the Fe Mn oxide and organic fraction. Summarized, sequential extraction of the 2500 2000 [Zn] (µg/l) 1500 1000 500 S1 + abiotic S1 + Zeolite S1 HRC + Zeolite S1 HRC S1 molasses + Zeolite S1 molasses 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Fig. 8. Evolution of zinc concentration in the contaminated S1 Triassic aquifer containing microcosms.
202 S. Van Roy et al. / Hydrometallurgy 83 (2006) 195 203 1200 1000 [SO4] (mg/l) 800 600 400 S1 + formal S1 + Zeolite S1 HRC + Zeolite S1 HRC S1 molasses + Zeolite S1 molasses 200 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Fig. 9. Evolution of sulfate concentration in the contaminated S1 Triassic aquifer containing microcosms. different metals from both clay and sandy aquifer shows very good immobilization of Zn, Cu and Cd. This immobilization as metal sulfides was however not noticed for Ba, B and Sr. 3.3. In situ bioprecipitation combined with sorption for the removal of elements in microcosms experiments using Triassic aquifer material and groundwater For the Triassic aquifer not only in situ bioprecipitation was studied but also ISBP combined with sorption on different adsorbents to study the impact of sorption on the ISBP process and vice versa in more detail. Since the Triassic aquifer is a supply for drinking water, a very high risk reduction is needed. Therefore, 3 different adsorbents, i.e., Zeolites, Dolomites, and Diatomeaous Earth were used in combination with different electron donors (HRC, lactate, molasses) which were added either individually or combined with the adsorbents to the contaminated S1 and uncontaminated S2 Triassic aquifer. Also, a condition with Zeolite solely was considered. In the conditions where HRC or molasses were supplied simultaneously with Zeolite, the removal of Ba, B and Sr was most efficient (Fig. 7, Ba and B data not shown). B could be removed for 35%. Zn removal was efficient (100%) in the condition where molasses was added in combination with Diatomeaous Earth, and the condition where lactate was supplied (data not shown). In the conditions where Zeolite and HRC respectively molasses were added simultaneously or separately, Zn was removed for >98% after 88 days (considering an initial concentration of 6500 μg/l Zn) (Fig. 8). In fact, Zn removal was even faster in the condition with Zeolite solely than the conditions with carbon source (Fig. 8). Since in the abiotic condition and the condition with Zeolite solely, there was no sulfate removal while in the conditions with carbon source in combination with or without Zeolite sulfate removal was observed too (Fig. 9), it seems that the heavy metal removal was mainly due to adsorption onto the Zeolite while in the conditions with carbon source, metal removal can be performed by ISBP. Further experiments have to point out which minerals are formed and whether the immobilized metalprecipitates are stable. The ph increased with 1 to 2 units in the conditions containing Zeolite (data not shown). In the condition HRC in combination with diatomic earth, Zn removal was initially observed but in a second phase Zn was released (data not shown). 4. Conclusions ISBP has been shown to have potential to remove elements like Zn that belong to the transition metals [5,6], but did not efficiently contribute to removal of B, Sr and Ba as shown in the Quaternary aquifer microcosms. However, the combination of in situ bioprecipitation with specific adsorbents for the Triassic aquifer samples seems promising to deal with the mixed metal contamination. Because in these conditions there was only a minor decrease of the sulfate concentration and because in the same conditions without adsorbents no such removal of metals was observed, it seems that the heavy metal removal was mainly due to adsorption onto the Zeolites. Steenbruggen and Hollman [7] already indicated the removal of different elements like Ba and Zn by different types of Zeolites but no elements like Sr and B were present in their liquid samples. Nevertheless, the impact of adsorbent addition on ph was significant and will probably impact the microbial population. This should be examined in more detail by molecular methods specifically targeting the
S. Van Roy et al. / Hydrometallurgy 83 (2006) 195 203 203 sulfate reducing bacterial community. Sequential extraction showed that Ba, B and Sr predominantly appeared in the leached, exchangeable and carbonate fractions and more sporadic in the Fe Mn-oxide and organic fraction. This indicates that these sorbed metals may be easily released in the environment. This is in contrary with Zn and Fe where the largest fraction appears in the Fe Mn-oxide and the organic fraction. The sorption experiment proved that GAC1 and Zeolite X were the best adsorbents for Ba and Sr. No adsorbent has been found to efficiently remove B. The maximum removal percentage of B was 60%. Fly Ash 50/51, Zeolite 50/51 and Calcined Magnesite could remove Cu and Zn for 99%. The best adsorbents for Cd were Zeolite X, Calcined Magnesite and GAC1. Further experiments should unravel the impact of ISBP and sorption simultaneously on the stability of metal immobilization and the stability of the precipitates/sorbed metals in the long run. Acknowledgements This work was carried out in frame of the WEL- COME project (EVK1-2001-00132) and the strategic research funded by VITO. We want to thank M. Korcz, J. Szdzuj, J. Krupanek and G. Malina for providing characteristics of the site and useful discussions. References [1] Yuan, C., Shi, J., Lui, J., Liang, L., Jiang, G., Speciation of heavy metals in marine sediments from the East China Sea by ICP-MS with sequential extraction. Environ Int, 30 (2004), 769 783. [2] Akcay, H., Oguz, A., Karapire, C., Study of heavy metal pollution and speciation in Buyak Menderes and Gediz river sediments. Water Res, 37 (2003), 813 822. [3] Shaw, D.M., Narasimha, R.D., Mahendrakar, N.S., Effect of different levels of molasse, salt and antimycotic agents on microbial profiles during fermentation of poultry intestine. Bioresour Technol, 63 (1998), 237 241. [4] Filgueiras, A.V., Lavilla, I., Bendicho, C., Chemical sequential extraction for metal partitioning in environmental solid samples. J Environ Monit, 4 (2002), 823 857. [5] Geets, J., Vanbroekhoven, K., Borremans, B., Vangronsveld, J., Van der Lelie, D., Diels, L., Column experiments to assess the effects of electron donors on the efficiency of in situ precipitation of Zn, Cd, Co and Ni in contaminated groundwater applying the biological sulfate removal technology. Environ Sci Pollut Res, (2005), 1 17. [6] Janssen, G.M., Temminghoff, E.J., In situ metal precipitation in a zinc-contaminated, aerobic sandy aquifer by means of biological sulfate reduction. Environ Sci Technol, 38 (2004), 4002 4011. [7] Steenbruggen, G., Hollman, G.G., The synthesis of zeolites from fly ash and the properties of the zeolite products. J Geochem Explor, 62 (1998), 305 309.
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