Development of a Hard X-Ray Polarimeter for Solar Flares and Gamma-Ray Bursts M.L. McConnell, D.J. Forrest, J. Macri, M. McClish, M. Osgood, J.M. Ryan, W.T. Vestrand and C. Zanes Space Science Center University of New Hampshire Durham, NH IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium, 9-15 Nov 1997, Albuquerque, NM
Polarization in Hard X-Ray Astronomy Can be used to study the geometry of the emission region, especially if the emission region geometry is well-defined by magnetic fields. Might also provide information on the emission mechansim (e.g., bremsstrahlung vs. synchrotron). Polarization measurements have traditionally been considered difficult to perform, especially at hard X-ray energies. To date, polarization measurements of astrophysical sources have all been made at energies below ~3 kev. Solar flare polarization measurements (E > 1 kev) should tell us something about the directivity (beaming) of the accelerated electrons. A direct measurement of the polarization of a γ-ray burst has not yet been attempted, but may provide useful clues as to their nature. 2
Compton Scatter Polarimetry At hard X-ray energies (1 3 kev), a Compton-scattered photon tends to be ejected at right angles to the incident polarization vector. A Compton scatter polarimeter measures the angular distribution of the scattered photons in a plane which is perpendicular to the incident photon direction. The asymmetry of this azimuthal scatter angle distribution can be exploited to measure the linear polarization of the Asymmetry Ratio 1 1 5 kev 1 kev 25 kev 5 kev 1 MeV incident flux. 1 6 8 1 12 Scattering Angle (degrees) A Compton scatter polarimeter consists of two basic components: 1) low-z scattering detector(s) to provide Compton scattering medium 2) high-z calorimeter detector(s) to absorb the scattered photon 3
The Polarization Signal An important figure-of-merit for a polarimeter is the polarization modulation factor. For 1% polarization, we define (via simulations), C max 1 1 µ = ( %) C min ( %) 1 C max ( 1 %) + C 1 min ( %) The polarization angle corresponds to the minimum in the scatter angle distribution, as shown in the schematic below. 2 15 1 C-max polarization angle 5 C-min 5 1 15 2 25 Azimuthal Scatter Angle (degs) 3 35 4
The Polarization Measurement In a real measurement, we compute the polarization (P) by comparing the measured scatter angle distribution with that expected for 1% polarization. In particular, P µ = P 1 = µ µ 1 1 C max ( P C P min ( ) C max ( P + C P min ( ) where µ 1 represents the modulation for the 1% polarization case and µ P represents that of the measurement. Polarization sensitivity (for a 3σ measurement) is given by, P( 3σ) = 3 2( S+ B) µ S T 1 1 2 where S and B refer to the source and background counting rates, respectively, and T is the observation time. 5
Laboratory Prototype A prototype has been set up at UNH to demonstrate the basic principles and to validate our (GEANTbased) Monte Carlo simulations. polarimeter array The prototype uses a semicircular array of 7 plastic scintillators arranged around a central NaI(Tl) detector. NaI Each plastic scintillator block is 5.5 5.5 7. cm in size. The cylindrical NaI(Tl) detector is 7.6 7.6 cm. polarizer For the data reported here, the plastic detectors were positioned at a radius of 15 cm from the NaI detector. collimated source 6
Generating a Polarized Beam A polarized beam of hard X-rays can be generated in the lab by Compton scattering photons from a γ-ray calibration source. Our principle calibration source is a 137Cs source, whose photons are Compton scattered within a block of plastic scintillator. A signal from the scintillator provides an electronic tag for each scattered photon, which can be used as a coincidence signal with the polarimeter. Polarization Fraction.8.6.4.2. 2 4 6 8 1 12 Scatter Angle (degs) 6 kev 662 kev 12 kev 14 16 18 This graph shows the level of polarization that can be achieved for various input photon energies (corresponing to 241Am, 137Cs and 6Co) and various scatter angles. A 662 kev photon beam, scattered at 9, is ~6% polarized; the scattered energy is 288 kev. 7
Results from Lab Prototype These data show a comparison between the laboratory data and Monte Carlo simulations for two different polarization angles and an incident photon energy of 288 kev. Not only do these data demonstrate a consistency with the simulations, they also show how the polarimeter response changes with the polarization angle of the incident beam. 1 8 6% polarized 65% polarized 14 12 6 4 1 8 6 2 4 2 5% polarized 55% polarized 4 8 12 16 5 1 15 Azimuthal Scatter Angle (degrees) Azimuthal Scatter Angle (degs) polarization angle = polarization angle = 45 8
Design Considerations We can define at least three important design criteria : Identification of Valid Polarimeter Events - A valid event involves a photon which scatters only once in the plastic scattering elements. Rejecting multiple scatter events will improve the modulation factor (and the polarization sensitivity). Determination of the Scatter Geometry - The ability to determine the location of the energy deposits in the plastic and in the calorimeter detectors directly defines the ability to determine the scatter angle. A more precise determination of the scatter angle will improve the modulation factor (and the polarization sensitivity). Measurement of Energy Deposits - Our principle motivation so far has been a polarization measurement of solar flare continuum emission. Energy resolution has not been an important factor. It may be a more critical factor, for example, if we are interested in the cyclotron lines observed in γ-ray bursts. 9
A Compact Polarimeter Design Our latest design provides for a complete polarimeter module placed on the front end of a 5 position-sensitive PMT. The plastic scattering elements are a bundle of 4mm plastic scintillating fibers (7.6 cm long). Readout is provided by the PSPMT The calorimeter detectors are an array of 1cm CsI (or NaI) scintillators (7.6 cm long). Readout is provided by independent compact PMTs. Fiber Bundle (.4 cm fibers) Position-Sensitive Photomultiplier Tube 5 cm CsI or NaI Array schematic of our latest design concept 1
Predicted Performance - On-Axis These data show the performance of this design based on a series of simulations using a monoenergetic photon beam. In both cases, we show the results for two different values of the plastic fiber energy threshold. A lower threshold leads to an improvement in the low energy characteristics. 2.5 1. Effective Area (cm 2 ) 2. 1.5 1..5 15 kev threshold in plastic 2 kev threshold in plastic Modulation Factor (µ 1 ).8.6.4.2 15 kev threshold in plastic 2 kev threshold in plastic. 8 9 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 Energy (kev) Effective Area. 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 Energy (kev) Modulation Factor 11
Predicted Performance vs. Fiber Size Simulations show that a smaller fiber size of 1mm offers no significant improvement over the results obtained with a fiber size of 4mm. Shown below are results for two different energies (1 kev and 3 kev). In both cases, the use of 1mm fibers provided no significant improvement in the polarization modulation factor. 2 4mm fiber size 1mm fiber size 1 kev 2 3 kev 15 15 1 1 5 5 4mm fiber size 1mm fiber size 5 1 15 2 25 3 35 5 1 15 2 25 3 35 Scatter Angle (degs) Scatter Angle (degs) modulation factor 6% modulation factor 5% 12
Predicted Performance - Off-Axis For off-axis angles, even unpolarized sources exhibit a modulated scatter angle distribution. This source data must be compared with that expected for an unpolarized source in order to extract the polarization signal. Raw Data Difference Data 16 16 14 3 kev @ 2 Incidence 14 3 kev @ 2 Incidence 12 12 1 8 6 4 2 polarized unplarized 2 off-axis 1 8 6 4 2 5 1 15 2 25 Azimuthal Scatter Angle (degrees) 3 35 5 1 15 2 25 Azimuthal Scatter Angle (degrees) 3 35 16 16 14 12 1 8 6 3 kev @ 6 Incidence 6 off-axis 14 12 1 8 6 3 kev @ 6 Incidence 4 2 polarized unpolarized 4 2 5 1 15 2 25 Azimuthal Scatter Angle (degrees) 3 35 5 1 15 2 25 Azimuthal Scatter Angle (degrees) 3 35 13
Predicted Performance - Off-Axis 3. 1. 2.5 3 kev.8 Effective Area (cm 2 ) 2. 1.5 1..5. Effective Area Modulation Factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7.6.4.2. Modulation Factor The total effective area as a function of incidence angle remains relatively constant due to the roughly constant exposed area of the fiber bundle. 14 12 Off-Axis Angle (degrees) The modulation factor varies dramatically as a function of the off-axis angle. 1 8 6 4 2 1 off-axis 2 off-axis 3 off-axis Nonetheless, there remains significant polarization sensitivity even at angles as large as 6. 5 1 15 2 25 3 35 Azimuthal Scatter Angle (degrees) 14
Solar Flare Polarization Sensitivity 1 Polarization Sensitivity (%) 1 1.1 5 1 M2 CLASS FLARE (1 sec dur) 15 2 25 Energy (kev) N = 4 SOLPOL Modules N = 16 SOLPOL Modules 3 35 4 These plots show the expected sensitivity of a polarimeter array based on this design. In each case, the sensitivities are shown for an array of 4 modules and an array of 16 modules. Array sensitivity goes as sqrt(n). 1 1 Polarization Sensitivity (%) 1 1.1 5 1 X2 CLASS FLARE (1 sec dur) 15 2 25 Energy (kev) N = 4 SOLPOL Modules N = 16 SOLPOL Modules 3 35 4 Polarization Sensitivity (%) 1 1.1 5 1 X1 CLASS FLARE(1 sec dur) 15 2 25 Energy (kev) N = 4 SOLPOL Modules N = 16 SOLPOL Modules 3 35 4 15
Burst Polarization Sensitivity An array of these polarimeter modules may have sufficient sensitivity to study polarization in γ-ray bursts. As shown below, polarization sensitivities approaching 1 2% can be achieved in individual energy intervals for the strongest events with an array of 16 modules. 1 Polarization Sensitivity (%) 1 1 5 1 15 2 Energy (kev) 25 S >> B 3 Burst Fluence Level (5 3 kev) 1 1-5 ergs cm -2 1 1-4 ergs cm -2 5 1-4 ergs cm -2 The sensitivity integrated over the full 5 3 kev interval is about 1% at a fluence level of 7 1-5 ergs cm-2. This corresponds to the fluence level of some of the strongest BATSE events. 16
Project Status We have successfully demonstrated a prototype polarimeter in the laboratory. We have developed a design for a compact polarimeter module that could be adapted to a variety of configurations. We have extensively modeled our new design using Monte Carlo simulations to evaluate its performance characteristics. We have begun testing a PSPMT/fiber bundle detector module to precisely evaluate its performance in the lab. Although our developments are primarily directed towards the study of solar flares (with support from Space Physics SR&T funding), we are investigating the use of this design in the context of γ-ray bursts and other non-solar (e.g., collimated) applications. 17