REGENTS CHEMISTRY 1
The modern model of the atom has evolved over a long period of time through the work of many scientists.(3.1a) Each atom has a nucleus, with an overall positive charge, surrounded by one or more negatively charged electrons. (3.1b) Subatomic particles contained in the nucleus include protons and neutrons. (3.1c) The proton is positively charged, and the neutron has no charge. The electron is negatively charged.(3.1d) Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charges. The number of protons equals the number of electrons in an atom. (3.1e) The mass of each proton and each neutron is approximately equal to one atomic mass unit. An electron is much less massive than a proton or a neutron. (3.1f) The number of protons in an atom (atomic number) identifies the element. The sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom (mass number) identifies an isotope. Common notations that represent isotopes include: 14C, 14C, carbon-14, C-14. (3.1g) In the wave-mechanical model (electron cloud model), the electrons are in orbitals, which are defined as the regions of the most probable electron location (ground state). (3.1h) Each electron in an atom has its own distinct amount of energy. (3.1i) When an electron in an atom gains a specific amount of energy, the electron is at a higher energy state (excited state). (3.1j) When an electron returns from a higher energy state to a lower energy state, a specific amount of energy is emitted. This emitted energy can be used to identify an element. (3.1k) The outermost electrons in an atom are called the valence electrons. In general, the number of valence electrons affects the chemical properties of an element. (3.1l) Atoms of an element that contain the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons are called isotopes of that element. (3.1m) The average atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the masses of its naturally occurring isotopes. (3.1n) The placement or location of elements on the Periodic Table gives an indication of physical and chemical properties of that element. The elements on the Periodic Table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number. (3.1y) For Groups 1, 2, and 13-18 on the Periodic Table, elements within the same group have the same number of valence electrons (helium is an exception) and therefore similar chemical properties. (3.1z) 2
For each word, provide a short but specific definition from YOUR OWN BRAIN! No boring textbook definitions. Write something to help you remember the word. Explain the word as if you were explaining it to an elementary school student. Give an example if you can. Don t use the words given in your definition! Proton: Neutron: Electron: Mass Number: Atomic Number: Atom: Cation: Anion: Nuclear charge: Isotope: Atomic Mass: Electron Configuration: Valence Electrons: Orbital: Ground State: Excited State: Light Spectra: Dalton: Thompson: Rutherford: Gold foil experiment: 3
Alpha particle: Deflected: Bohr: Quantum Mechanical Model: Section 1 Theory and Scientists Do Now (Write and Answer Questions Here) The modern model of the atom has evolved over a long period of time through the work of many scientists. Each atom has a nucleus, with an overall positive charge, surrounded by one or more negatively charged. Subatomic particles contained in the nucleus include and. These particles are called. The proton is positively charged, and the neutron has no charge. The electron is charged. Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charges. The number of protons equals the number of electrons in an atom. The mass of each proton and each neutron is approximately to one atomic mass unit. An electron is much massive than a proton or a neutron. The number of protons in an atom ( ) identifies the element. 4
Ernest Rutherford performed the Gold Foil experiment in 1911 which helped him develop the solar system or nuclear model of the atom. He used alpha particles (small but dense positive charged particles emitted like x-rays) and shot them at gold foil. He assumed that either the particles would go straight through the foil like an x-ray through a person s skin, or they would be deflected back like x-rays on the lead suit you wear at the dentist. So he placed a detection chamber around his experiment to detect the alpha particles (and to shield himself from the radiation) and guess what? Both scenarios happened! He suggested that atom in mostly empty space with a dense positive nucleus in the center. Electrons orbit around the nucleus like planets around the sun. 1. If you threw a stream of tennis balls at a brick wall what would happen? 2. If you threw a stream of tennis balls at smoke what would happen? 3. If Dalton s model is correct and the atom is a solid sphere; when alpha particles (tennis balls) were shot at the gold foil (wall), what should happen? 4. If Thompson s model is correct and the atom is a positive cloud (smoke) with electrons scattered throughout; when alpha particles (tennis balls) were shot at the gold foil (wall), what should happen? 5
5. When Rutherford performed his experiment, for every 100 alpha particles, only one particle was deflected. All other 99 particles travelled straight through the foil. a. What does deflected mean? b. Was the probability of hitting the nucleus high or low? c. Does that mean the nucleus is small or large? d. Is that atom mostly solid or mostly empty? e. If the alpha particles were negatively charged, what would happen if they hit the positive nucleus? f. Rutherford knew the alpha particles are positive, so how did Rutherford know the nucleus was positive? g. Where is most of the mass of the atom? h. Where could the negatively charged electrons be? 7. What discoveries concerning the Modern Atomic Theory are each of the following scientists credited with? a. John Dalton b. J.J. Thomson c. Ernest Rutherford- d. Neils Bohr 6
8. Draw each atomic model and identify which scientist is associated with it: Dalton Thompson Rutherford Bohr Model Nickname: Model Nickname: Model Nickname: Model Nickname: Order: Order: Order: Order: 1.) J.J. Thomson s Cathode Ray Tube experiment led to the discovery of 1. the positively charged subatomic particle called the electron 2. the positively charged subatomic particle called the proton 3. the positively charged subatomic particle called the electron 4. the negatively charged subatomic particle called the electron 2.) According to the Bohr Model, 1. electrons are found in areas of high probability called orbitals 2. electrons travel around the nucleus in circular paths called orbits 3. electrons are found in areas of high probability called orbits 4. electrons travel around the nucleus in random paths called orbitals 7
3.) According to the Wave-Mechanical Model, 1. electrons are found in areas of high probability called orbitals 2. electrons travel around the nucleus in circular paths called orbits 3. electrons are found in areas of high probability called orbits 4. electrons travel around the nucleus in random paths called orbitals 4.) In Thomson s cathode-ray experiment, what evidence led him to believe that the ray consisted of particles, and why did he conclude that the ray was negatively charged? 5.) One model of the atom states that atoms are tiny particles composed of a uniform mixture of positive and negative charges. Scientists conducted an experiment where alpha particles were aimed at a thin layer of gold atoms. Most of the alpha particles passed directly through the gold atoms. A few alpha particles were deflected from their straight-line paths. An illustration of the experiment is shown below. a. Most of the alpha particles passed directly through the gold atoms undisturbed. What does this evidence suggest about the structure of the gold atoms? b. A few of the alpha particles were deflected. What does this evidence suggest about the structure of the gold atoms? c. How should the original model be revised based on the results of this experiment? 6.) In 1897, J. J. Thomson demonstrated in an experiment that cathode rays were deflected by an electric field. This suggested that cathode rays were composed of negatively charged particles found in all atoms. Thomson concluded that the atom was a positively charged sphere of almost uniform density in which negatively charged particles were embedded. The total negative charge in the atom was balanced by the positive charge, making the atom electrically neutral. In the early 1900s, Ernest Rutherford bombarded a very thin sheet of gold foil with alpha particles. After interpreting the results of the gold foil experiment, Rutherford proposed a more sophisticated model of the atom. a. State one conclusion from Rutherford s experiment that contradicts one conclusion made by Thomson. b. State one aspect of the modern model of the atom that agrees with a conclusion made by Thomson. 8
Section 2 Subatomic Particles Do Now (Write and Answer Questions Here) 1. Name the three subatomic particles and give their actual mass, relative mass (in amu), charge and location. Particle Charge Mass Location neutron +1 1 electron 2. If the atomic number tells you the number of protons an atom has and atoms are neutral, how can you determine the number of electrons the atom has? 3. Explain how to determine the number of neutrons an atom has given the atomic and mass numbers. 9
Subatomic particles are the smaller objects inside the atom: protons, neutrons and electrons! Directions: Under the headings, explain how to obtain each piece of data. Then based on the information given in the row, determine the element and its contents, thus filling out the entire chart. Name Symbol Protons Neutrons Electrons Atomic # Mass # Hydrogen 0 1 1 He 2 4 Carbon C 6 12 Nitrogen 7 7 7 Oxygen O 8 8 8 Aluminum 14 13 27 Iron 26 30 Co 27 59 Lithium 4 Beryllium Be 4 4 9 Boron 5 11 Ne 10 Sodium 11 12 Fluorine 9 10 Nickel Ni 59 Ca 40 10
Cations are charged because they when bonding. (positively/negatively) (gain/lose) (electrons/protons) Anions are charged because they when bonding. (positively/negatively) (gain/lose) (electrons/protons) If a particle has 9 protons and 10 electrons, what is the symbol and charge? If a particle has 11 protons and 10 electrons, what is the symbol and charge? If a particle has 12 protons and 10 electrons, what is the symbol and charge? Give a mathematical rule for determining the charge of a particle: Name Symbol Protons Neutrons Electrons Atomic # Mass # Copper ion Cu +2 29 35 64 Barium ion Ba +2 56 137 K + 39 Gold ion Au +3 118 79 Chloride ion 18 18 17 Fluoride ion F - 10 Sulfide ion S -2 16 O -2 16 Aluminum ion 13 10 27 11
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The term nuclear charge represents the number and sign of the charge inside the nucleus. Protons which are charged and neutrons which are charged, are in the nucleus. This means the nucleus is always charged. Complete the table below (all are neutral): Name Symbol Protons Neutrons Electrons Atomic # Mass # Nuclear charge Oxygen 8 8 8 16 8+ 7 7 7 S 34 Hydrogen (deuterium) 1 1 1 Hydrogen (tritium) 1 1 3 9 19 Beryllium 9 12 24 12 25 92 238 92+ Chlorine 35 17 37 Kr 36 84 Silver 60 26 56 Some of these examples are the same element. What was different about them? 13
Section 3 Isotopes Do Now (Write and Answer Questions Here) In terms of subatomic particles, isotopes are atoms of the same element which have a different number of but the same number of. Thus the number is the same but the number is different. Isotope names can be followed by the mass number. Example: Carbon -14 and Carbon-12. Isotope symbols include the element s symbol with the mass number on the top left and the atomic number on the 14 bottom left. Example: 6C 12 and 6C The number of protons in an atom ( ) identifies the element. The sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom ( ) identifies an isotope. Common notations that represent isotopes include: 14C, 14C, carbon-14, C-14. The of an element is the weighted average of the masses of its naturally occurring isotopes. 1. Define isotope 2. Which of the following are isotopes? a. 1 1H and 1 1H c. 12 6C and 12 7N b. 35 17Cl and 35 18Ar d. 32 16S and 33 16S 14
3. Write the isotopic notation for the following and determine the number of each subatomic particle: a. Nitrogen-14 and Nitrogen-16 b. Boron-10 and Boron-11 Name Lithium-6 Isotope Symbol Atomic Mass Atomic Number Neutrons Protons Electrons Nuclear Charge Lithium-7 Boron-10 Boron-11 Sodium-22 Sodium-24 Aluminum-26 Aluminum-27 Iron-55 Iron-56 Zinc-65 Zinc-66 For each pair above, look up the element s atomic mass from the reference table and decide which isotope is more abundant. Circle the more abundant isotope s name. 15
Section 4 Atomic Mass Do Now (Write and Answer Questions Here) In class the following grades were reported: Grade out of 50 % of students 50 10 45 25 40 40 135 20 30 5 1. Calculate the class average and show your work. 2. The teacher uses the following calculation: 50(.10) + 45(.25) + 40(.40) + 35(.20) + 30(.05) = Class Average out of 50 a. Finish her calculation in your calculator. Class average: b. Explain how she completed the calculation and why it works. 16
The atomic mass is the weighted average mass of the naturally occurring isotopes of an element. It can be found by multiplying the mass number of the atom by the present abundances (in decimal form) and adding the results. Example: Copper-63 and Copper-65 are 69.17% and 30.83% respectively. What is the atomic mass? Find the atomic masses of the following: 1. Silver: 55.0% Ag-107, 45.0% Ag-109 63(.6917) + 65(.3083) = 63.5 amu How is this similar to the calculation you did above? 2. Rhendium: 30.0% Re-185, 70% Re-187 3. Chlorine: 75.5% Cl-35, the rest Cl-37 4. Boron: 19.6 % B-10, the rest B-11 5. Oxygen: 99.76% O-16, 0.046% O-17, and 0.20% O-18 Sometimes a more specific mass is given for the mass number. Continue the same steps you did above! 6. Naturally occurring chlorine that is put in pools is 75.53% Cl-34.969 and 24.47% Cl-36.9666. Calculate the atomic mass. 7. Copper is used in electric wires and comes as two isotopes, Cu-63 and Cu-65. Cu-63 has an actual mass of 62.9298amu and Cu-65 has an actual mass of 64.9233 amu. If they are 69.09% and 30.91% abundant respectively, what is the atomic mass? 17
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Section 5 Bohr Diagrams Do Now (Write and Answer Questions Here) In the wave-mechanical model (electron cloud model), the electrons are in, which are defined as the regions of the most probable electron location (ground state). Each electron in an atom has its own distinct amount of energy. When an electron in an atom gains a specific amount of energy, the electron is at a higher energy state ( state). When an electron returns from a higher energy state to a lower energy state, a specific amount of energy is emitted. This emitted energy can be used to identify an element. The outermost electrons in an atom are called the electrons. In general, the number of valence electrons affects the chemical properties of an element. The placement or location of elements on the Periodic Table gives an indication of physical and chemical properties of that element. The elements on the Periodic Table are arranged in order of increasing. For Groups 1, 2, and 13-18 on the Periodic Table, elements within the same group have the same number of (helium is an exception) and therefore similar chemical properties. 1. What are orbitals? 2. Which have more energy: electrons closer to the nucleus or electrons furthest away? Why? 3. How many electrons fill the first shell? The second? The third? The fourth? 4. Why don t you really have to memorize the facts in question 3? (Where could you look?) 19
5. Give the electron configurations for the following: a. Carbon d. Strontium b. Fluorine e. Argon c. Sodium f. Lithium 6. Give the valence electrons for the examples in question 5. a. Carbon d. Strontium b. Fluorine e. Argon c. Sodium f. Lithium 7. Which of the examples in questions 5/6 have the same number of valence electrons? What else do they have in common as far as were they are found on the periodic table? 8. Using number 7 as your guide, how many valence electrons do all elements in group 1 have? Group 2? Group 13? Group 14? Group 15? Group 16? Group 17? Group 18? Bohr diagrams show the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus and the number of electrons in their energy levels. The electron configuration shows how many electrons are in each level in the ground state, or under normal conditions. An example of a Bohr diagram is given below: Magnesium (Mg) Atomic number 12 Mass number (rounded) 24 12p +, 12 e -, 12n o 12p + 12n 0 2 8 2 Draw the Bohr diagrams of the following: 20
Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell. They are the furthest from the nucleus, escaping the protons pulling on them. Therefore, they have the energy out of all the electrons. Do any of the elements above have the same number of valence electrons? List the pairs: Section 6 Light Spectra Do Now (Write and Answer Questions Here) The Electromagnetic Spectrum HIGH ENERGY LOW ENERGY 21
Answer the questions below based on the electromagnetic spectrum above. 1.) The energy of light from red to green to blue. (increases, decreases, or remains the same?) 2.) The shorter the wavelength of light, the its energy. (higher or lower?) 3.) The shorter the frequency of light, the its energy. (higher or lower?) 4.) Energy and wavelength have a(n) relationship (direct or inverse?) 5.) Energy and frequency have a(n) relationship. (direct or inverse?) 6.) In terms of energy, order the following forms of light from the highest (#1) to the lowest (#7): red, blue, green, yellow, orange, infrared, ultraviolet 7.) Explain why an element s spectra can be referred to as a fingerprint for elements. 8.) What is the difference between the ground state configurations found on the periodic table and the excited state? 9.) Why isn t it feasible to write excited states on the periodic table? 10.) Explain using ground and excited states, how bright light spectrums are seen. 22
11. State the total number of valence electrons in a cadmium atom in the ground state. 12. Identify all the elements in the mixture shown above. The Balmer series refers to the visible bright lines in the spectrum produced by hydrogen atoms. The color and wavelength of each line in this series are given in the table below. 13. Explain, in terms of both subatomic particles and energy states, how the Balmer series is produced. 14. Recreate diagram above and draw four vertical lines to represent the Balmer series. 23
15. Write an appropriate number of electrons in each shell to represent a Mg-26 atom in an excited state. 16. What is the total number of valence electrons in an atom of Mg-26 in the ground state? Many advertising signs depend on the production of light emissions from gas-filled glass tubes that are subjected to a high-voltage source. When light emissions are passed through a spectroscope, bright-line spectra are produced. 17. Explain the production of an emission spectrum in terms of the energy states of an electron. 18. Identify the two gases in the unknown mixture. 24
19. Electron transitions from one shell to another are given for four different atoms below: Atom G: 3rd shell to 2nd shell Atom H: 1st shell to 4th shell Atom I: 4th shell to 6th shell Atom J: 5th shell to 3rd shell a. In which atom(s) is energy released during the e- transition? b. In which atom(s) would spectral lines be observed? c. In which atom is the greatest amount of energy absorbed? d. In which atom is the greatest amount of energy released? Section 7 Lewis Diagrams Do Now (Write and Answer Questions Here) Lewis diagrams show only the atom s symbol and dots representing the valence electrons. The most valence electrons an atom can have is so the most dots you will draw is. Please make dots very visible! Examples: 25
Name Protons Neutrons Electrons Electron Configuration Valence Electrons Lewis Diagram Rubidium-85 Cesium-133 Strontium-88 Barium-138 Germanium-72 Tin-119 Arsenic-75 Antimony-121 Sellenium-79 Tellurium-127 Bromine-80 Iodine-127 Xenon-131 Krypton -84 1. Why are the valence electrons the most important electrons? 2. What do elements with the same valence electrons have in common? 3. The kernel electrons are all electrons except the valence electrons. How many kernel electrons does magnesium have? 4. Draw the Lewis dot diagram of Li +, Ca +2, S -2 and F - 5. All cations have dots and all anions have dots. 26
Unit 3: Review SCIENTIFIC THEORIES Dalton theorized that atoms were the smallest particle and could not be divided. Atoms can bond with one another in whole number ratios to form compounds but cannot be created or destroyed. Atoms of the same element are identical. Dalton s model is known as the hard sphere model. a. According to Dalton, what is inside the atom? b. What part of Dalton s theory has been disproven? Thompson worked with the cathode ray tube and discovered a ray of light travelling to the positive plate in the tube. This particle was the electron which must have a negative charge. Because atoms are neutral, Thompson assumed there must be invisible positively charged particles as well. These discoveries lead to Thompson s plum pudding model. a. Draw the plum pudding model: b. Explain why Thompson concluded that electrons are negative. Rutherford shot alpha particles at gold foil in an effort to disprove either Dalton or Thompson s theory. If Dalton were right, the alpha particle would deflect, if Thompson were right the alpha particle would go straight through. 99% of the alpha particles went straight through. Rutherford concluded the atom was mostly empty space with a dense positive nucleus containing protons and neutrons. His model is known as the nuclear model. a. Draw the nuclear model: b. If alpha particles are positive and bounce off of the nucleus, what is the charge of the nucleus? Bohr used complicated mathematics to organize electrons into orbits around the nucleus with specific energies. His model is known as the planetary model. a. Draw the planetary model: b. Have the placement of p + and n o changed in Bohr s model since Rutherford s model? 27
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES Atoms are neutral and contain subatomic particles. Protons are positively charged particles located in the nucleus. Neutrons are neutral particles located in the nucleus. Electrons are negatively charged particles found in orbit around the nucleus. Protons and neutrons both weigh 1 amu and the electron s mass in negligible. a. Fill in the chart below: Proton Neutron Electron Charge Mass Location b. What is an amu? c. What does the electron s mass in negligible mean? d. If atoms are neutral, then the number of protons the number of electrons because The atomic number is the identity of an element. The periodic table and table S are arranged according to the atomic number. It tells you how many protons an atom has. a. Which element has 36 protons? b. How many protons does chlorine have? The mass number of an element is a whole number equal to the number of protons and neutrons. Every atom has it s own mass number. a. Why aren t electrons counted in the mass number? b. How many electrons does C-12 have? B-11? O-16? 28
IONS Ions represent atoms that have either gained or lost electrons forming anions and cations. A list of allowable charges is listed on the top right corner of every element box on the periodic table. a. Why can t atoms gain protons to become positive? b. Why can t atoms lose protons to become negative? c. What are negative ions called? d. What are positive ions called? e. A sample has 35 protons and 36 electrons. Give the element symbol and charge. f. A sample has 1 protons and 0 electrons. Give the element symbol and charge. g. A sample has 19 protons and 18 electrons. Give the element symbol and charge. ISOTOPES Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons. But they have different number of neutrons and a different mass. a. What do isotopes have in common? b. How are isotopes different? c. Which of the following are isotopes? 12 6C 15 7N 14 6C 15 7N 12 5B The atomic mass of an element is the weighted average mass of the naturally occurring isotopes. a. Explain how mass number and atomic mass are different. b. What the atomic mass of Carbon? c. If there are two isotopes of carbon, C-12 and C-14, which is more abundant? d. Calculate the atomic mass of a sample of element X which contains 45% X-118 and the rest is X-120. 29
ELECTRONS, BOHR, AND SPECTRA Neils Bohr organized the electrons into energy levels. Electrons closer to the nucleus have less energy than electrons further from the nucleus. The first level holds only 2 electrons. The second level holds 8, third holds 18 and fourth 32. These numbers are reported on the periodic table. Each element s box has an electron configuration in the ground state showing how many electrons are in each level. a. What is the electron configuration of Neon? b. What is the electron configuration of Strontium? c. Which element has the ground state electron configuration 2-8-9-3? d. Draw the Bohr diagram of the following: C-14 S-32 F-19 - The last level contains valence electrons that can be lost or gained to form ions involved in bonding. Cations are positive ions that have lost electrons, therefore having more positive protons than negative electrons. Anions are negative ions that have gained electrons and then have fewer protons than electrons. a. How many valence electrons does Sodium have? b. How many valence electrons does fluorine have? c. If an atom has 8 protons and 10 electrons, what is the charge? What type of ion is it? d. If an atom has 12 protons and 10 electrons, what is the charge? What type of ion is it? e. Draw the lewis diagram of the following: F S P -3 Na + When energy is added to the atom, electrons can move up to higher energy levels, in the excited state. The excited state is unstable. When the electrons return to the ground state they release energy in the form of light called a spectra. Every atom has a different spectrum. a. Energy is when electrons move from higher to lower energy levels. b. Energy is when electrons move from lower to higher energy levels. c. Spectra is observed when electrons move from to energy levels. d. Why can you identify atoms by their spectra? e. Identify which two gases (A, B, C, or D) are in the unknown mixture: 30
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