Structural Overprinting in the orthwestern Skeena Fold Belt (TS 14B, H), orthwestern British Columbia 1 by W. Loogman 2, J-F. Gagnon 2, J.W.F. Waldron 3 and C.A. Evenchick 3 KEYWORDS: Skeena Fold Belt, folds, faults, over print - ing ITRODUCTIO The Skeena Fold Belt, as de fined by Evenchick (91a), is lo cated in north west ern Brit ish Co lum bia, in the Stikine Terrane of the Intermontane Belt of the Ca na dian Cor dil lera (Fig 1). The dis tri bu tion of the Skeena Fold Belt roughly mir rors the lo ca tion of the Me so zoic Bow ser Ba - sin, and the fold belt is pre dom i nantly de vel oped in the Mid dle Ju ras sic Early Cre ta ceous Bow ser Lake Group of the Bow ser Ba sin. The Early Ju ras sic Hazelton Group and the Late Cre ta ceous Sustut Group are also af fected by fold - ing and thrust fault ing. Two re gional fold trends are pres ent within the Skeena Fold Belt: north west-trending folds are dom i nant in the east ern two-thirds of the fold belt, and north east-trending folds are pres ent in the west ern third (Fig 1). Lo cally, these fold trends are found out side their dom i nant do mains and over print each other (Evenchick, 91a; Evenchick, ). It is the aim of this study to eval - u ate over printed struc tures and their tim ing re la tion ships. Field work was con ducted in 26 as a fol low-up to field - work car ried out in the sum mer of 25 and re ported on by Waldron et al. (26). This work ac com pa nies that re ported by Gagnon et al. (27). In an ef fort to aid in hy dro car bon ex plo ra tion within the Bow ser Ba sin, re cent stud ies of its pe tro leum po ten tial by the Geo log i cal Sur vey of Can ada and BC Min is try of En ergy, Mines and Pe tro leum Re sources (Osadetz et al., 23; Evenchick et al., 23) have fo cused on up dat ing the ther mal ma tu rity mod els of Bustin and Mof fat (89), which pre dicted un fa vour ably high heat flow to much of the Bow ser Ba sin, and on de vel op ing mod els for as sess ing the ef fec tive ness of pe tro leum sys tems. In ad di tion to con - ven tional pe tro leum, there is po ten tial for coalbed meth ane and con ven tional coal. Min eral po ten tial ex ists in vol ca nic rocks on the flanks of the ba sin (Fig 1), as shown by the high-grade stratiform volcanogenic mas sive sul phide (VMS) Au-Ag de pos its at Eskay Creek (Roth et al., 99). 1 Geoscience BC con tri bu tion GBC22 2 Department of Earth Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E3 3 Geological Survey of Canada, 65 Robson Street, Vancouver, BC V6B 5J3 This publication is also available, free of charge, as colour digital files in Adobe Acrobat PDF format from the BC Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources website at http://www.em.gov.bc.ca/mining/geolsurv/publications/catalog/ cat_fldwk.htm Un der stand ing the struc tural his tory of the region will contribute to exploration and evaluation of these resources. REGIOAL STRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK The mapped re gions of the Skeena Fold Belt ex pose rocks of the Mid dle Ju ras sic Early Cre ta ceous Bow ser Lake Group, in clud ing the Ritchie-Alger, Eaglenest and Skelhorne lithofacies as sem blages, de scribed in Evenchick and Thorkelson (25). The lack of re gion ally cor re la tive bound aries in the Bow ser Lake Group makes the use of for - mal for ma tion/group des ig na tions dif fi cult. Syn chro nous de po si tion of shal low and deep ma rine fa cies oc curred; the Bow ser Lake Group re flects an over all progradational depositional history. The Ritchie-Alger as sem blage com prises sand stone, siltstone and shale, with rare chert-rich con glom er ate. Sheet-like in ter vals of fine to me dium-grained sand stone, sep a rated by shale in ter vals that are metres thick, have been in ter preted to re late to sub ma rine fan de po si tion (Evenchick and Thorkelson, 25). Ev i dence of turbidite ac cu mu la tion within the sub ma rine fan com plexes in cludes nor mal grad ing, groove casts, dewatering struc tures and Bouma cy cles. The Ritchie-Alger as sem blage is es ti mated to reach thick nesses of m in the west ern third of the Bow ser Basin (Evenchick and Thorkelson, 25). The Skelhorne lithofacies as sem blage com prises more than 1 m of siltstone, sand stone and con glom er ate (Evenchick and Thorkelson, 25). Com mon me dium to thick-bed ded coars en ing-up ward cy cles, ma rine and plant fos sils, wave-gen er ated rip ples and bioturbation are in ter - preted to re cord a mod er ate-en ergy deltaic depositional en - vi ron ment (Evenchick and Thorkelson, 25). The Skelhorne as sem blage is most com mon in the west-cen tral part of the Bowser Basin. The Eaglenest lithofacies as sem blage com prises a high per cent age (up to 8%) of rusty- weath er ing con glom - er ate and sand stone, with mi nor siltstone and shale, and reaches thick nesses of 1 m (Evenchick and Thorkelson, 25). Con glom er ate clasts are well-rounded and wellsorted peb bles com posed pre dom i nantly of chert. Plant fos - sils, in clud ing sub stan tial si lici fied trees, are abun dant, whereas ma rine fos sils are rare. The abun dance of con - glom er ate, coars en ing-up ward cy cles and tree fos sils all sug gest a high-en ergy deltaic depositional en vi ron ment (Evenchick and Thorkelson, 25). EXISTIG STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK The Skeena Fold Belt over lies the Stikine Terrane of the Intermontane Belt (Evenchick, 91a). The Skeena Geo log i cal Field work 26, Pa per 27-1 325
13W 128W BOWSER BASI 12 W kilometres 6 ALBER TA C T F O BEL CA LIM IE OM LT LT BE D BE ELA E FOR TA O RM TE I LT E TB AS CO T BEL BRITIS H COLU MBIA 5 Cartmel Lake IT O LE IL RA Sweeny Creek ORMATIO DEF R ULA IS R D 57 49 CRETACEOUS Sustut Group MIDDLE JURASSIC TO MID-CRETACEOUS Bowser Lake Group EARLY MIDDLE JURASSIC AD OLDER Upper Hazelton Group clastic rocks Hazelton Group volcanic rocks Iskut Ridge Oweegee dome Eskay Creek PALEOZOIC Mapping area Axial trace of fold 56 o o 128W Figure 1. Simplified regional geology of the northwestern Skeena Fold Belt (compiled from Evenchick, 91a; Bone, 22; Evenchick and Thorkelson, 25; Waldron et al., 26), showing fold axial traces and study areas referred to in the text; inset shows location of figure within the Canadian Cordillera. Fold Belt was formed between the Albian and early Tertiary (Evenchick, 91a; Evenchick and Thorkelson, 25). The fold belt has been interpreted as a fold-and-thrust belt rooted in the Coast Moun tains (Evenchick, 91b). Evenchick () suggested that oblique northwest-southeast shortening occurred first, affecting the western Bowser Basin, and was followed by a long period of northeastsouthwest shortening that generated northwest-trending folds, parallel to the surface strike of the Canadian Cordillera. On the basis of work conducted in the Groundhog coalfield, Moffat and Bustin (93) proposed three periods of shortening: initial northeast-southwest shortening, then northwest-southeast shortening and lastly northeast-southwest shortening. Bone (22) examined a basinal fold-interference pattern identified by Evenchick (91a), formed by intersection of two similar-scale synclines, confirming the presence of type I fold interference (Ramsay, 67); interference of this type can produce domes favourable to petroleum accumulation. 26 FIELD MAPPIG During the 26 field season, six areas were mapped at 1:25 scale from he li cop ter-po si tioned fly camps (Fig 1). Results from three of these areas are reported on here. The Iskut ridge area was selected due to its proximity to the Eskay Creek area, an area known to have multiple gen er ations of folds (Read et al., 89; Lewis, 92; Waldron et al., 26). The Cartmel Lake area was selected as an area dominated by northwest-trending folds with pos- 326 sible overprinting of northeast-trending folds, recognized by Evenchick and Green (24). The Sweeny Creek area was chosen for its convergence of fold trends, as shown by Evenchick (24). Iskut Ridge A small ridge, east of the Iskut River and north of Palmiere Creek at the western margin of the Bowser Basin, is herein referred to as Iskut ridge (Fig 1). All rock units observed in this area are assigned to the Ritchie-Alger lithofacies assemblage (Evenchick et al., 24). Structure in the Iskut ridge area is dominated by north and northnortheast-trending folds traceable throughout much of the map area (Fig 2). orth-trending folds are rounded and open to tight. Mappable deflections in north-trending axial traces occur near southeast-trending minor folds. Minor folds are open to tight, and commonly plunge steeply (~6º) southeast. Equal-area projections of poles to bedding (Fig 3a) show a diffuse girdle distribution with an eigenvector 1 plunging steeply toward the southeast. These data suggest small-scale folding about a southeast-plunging axis, in contrast to map-scale relationships that indicate north-trending folds as the dominant structure. Cleavage is ubiquitous within fine units of the turbidite succession and sporadic in coarser sandstone. Pencil lineations are widespread, defined by intersection of steep bedding and steep cleavage. Cleavage data shown in Figure 3b lie in two clusters: a dominant steeply dipping cleavage that strikes northwest, Geoscience BC, Report 27-1
138 6293 6292 6291 6 6 46 1 72 2 68 69 2 146 144 77 24 75 56 46 74 76 44 76 71 76 8 76 67 7 26 36 81 69 81 85 4 13 87 78 8 75 83 68 75 77 78 85 and a lesser steep cleav age that strikes north east. In out - crop, cleav age ap pears to be a spaced pres sure-so lu tion fab ric. Slaty cleav age char ac ter ized by pen e tra tive min eral align ment is rare. Ori ented sam ples were col lected and will be used for fu ture petrographic anal y ses of cleav age. Be - cause of the scar city of min eral align ment, over printed cleav age does not dis play crenulation. The clus ters of 2 58 36 79 74 66 26 89 2 2 78 89 73 73 59 62 57 74 65 77 148 Legend 61 144 69 67 71 Cleavage Bedding Vertical beds Anticline Syncline Axial trace Contour elevations in metres. 2 m Scale Fig ure 2. Struc ture of the Iskut Ridge area, show ing bed ding ori en - ta tions and mapped ax ial traces. 136 142 6293 6292 6291 cleav age poles in Fig ure 3b are at trib uted to su per po si tion of two ep i sodes of short en ing. There is no gir dle dis tri bu - tion, such as might be ex pected if an ear lier cleav age were re folded by later short en ing. This is likely be cause ex ten - sion di rec tions dur ing both de for ma tion ep i sodes were nearly par al lel and ap prox i mately ver ti cal. Mapped de flec - tions of north-south ax ial traces by south east-trending folds (Fig 2) in di cate that the north to north-north east-strik ing folds formed first and were sub se quently over printed by rel a tively mi nor south east-trending folds. This is con sis - tent with overall folding of bedding about a southeastplunging axis (Fig 3a), suggesting that minor folds are part of a larger structure. Equal-area plots of bed ding-cleav age in ter sec tion lineations in Fig ure 3c show a scat tered clus ter cen tred on a north west-trending axis. The scat ter is at trib uted to the rel - a tive scar city of north east-strik ing cleav age in com par i son to north west-strik ing cleavage. Faults are rel a tively rare in this area com pared with the rest of the west ern Skeena Fold Belt. Brit tle struc tures ob - served in clude en échelon veins at a num ber of lo ca tions. There are a num ber of S and Z asym met ric veins in ter - preted to re cord sinistral and dextral move ment, re spec - tively. In some cases, both asym me tries can be ob served at a sin gle lo cal ity (Fig 4, 5). The pres ence of en échelon veins sug gests a com po nent of brit tle strain, pos si bly re lated to the nearby For rest Kerr fault (Read et al., 89) and faults in ter preted by Lo gan et al. (2). Cartmel Lake An area ex pos ing rocks of the Eaglenest as sem blage ap prox i mately 3 km south west of Cartmel Lake was se - lected for study of pre vi ously rec og nized over printed folds (Evenchick and Green, 24). The to pog ra phy is dom i - nated by cliff-form ing con glom er ate beds in which a nearver ti cal rough cleav age dom i nates the exposed surfaces. The struc ture at Cartmel Lake is dom i nated by three ma jor folds that trend south east (Fig 6). At map scale, a gently dip ping sur face in the north ern sec tion of the map area trun cates bed ding at a low an gle and is in ter preted as a décollement. A fault in the south ern sec tion of the map area trun cates bed ding in a sim i lar fash ion and is in ter preted as a con tin u a tion of the same décollement (Fig 6). Bed ding cut - offs in di cate that this de tach ment climbs upsection to the south east. As so ci ated out crop-scale folds face and verge south east. A north east-trending map-scale fold at the south - ern ex trem ity of the area is pre sumed to be re lated to the same de for ma tion that pro duced the south east-verg ing de - tach ment. Map-scale south east-trending folds can be traced through the de tach ment without offset, implying that it must have been folded. u mer ous steep north west-strik ing faults, trace able over less than a kilo metre, off set cliff-form ing con glom er - ate in a dextral sense, with off sets rang ing from metres to tens of metres (Fig 6). Slickenline lineations in di cate dextral strike-slip mo tion. Rare sinistral faults of sim i lar size and scale, but trace able over just a few metres, are pres - ent. These faults off set the mapped trace of the low-an gle décollement by sim i lar amounts. The sinistral faults may be con ju gate to dextral faults, as sug gested by their clock wise ori en ta tion rel a tive to the dextral faults and sim i lar off set of strata. The ori en ta tions of the con ju gate faults sug gest an ap prox i mate north-south shortening direction. Geo log i cal Field work 26, Pa per 27-1 327
A B C 1 E1 2 = 14 = 73 = 68 Fig ure 3. Lower-hemi sphere equal-area pro jec tion of struc tural data col lected in the Iskut ridge area: A) poles to bed ding; E1, eigenvector 1; dashed line shows prin ci pal E1 gir dle plane; B) poles to cleav age, dot ted lines out line in ter preted dis tri bu tions of cleav age clus ters 1 and 2; C) bed ding-cleav age in ter sec tion lineations. Spaced cleav age is well de vel oped in con glom er ate of the Cartmel Lake area, with some out crops show ing three dis tinct cleav age sets. The high per cent age (75 9%) of coarse-grained rock types within the Eaglenest lithofacies as sem blage may ac count for the com mon oc cur rence of cleav age within con glom er ate; li thol ogy is rel a tively ho - mo ge neous and there fore strain is not par ti tioned to finer grained rock types. The cleav age dis tri bu tion is un usual com pared to other Bow ser Lake Group as sem blages that have a bulk fine-grained com po si tion and only rarely de - velop cleav age in coarse rock types. Cleaved con glom er ate shows smooth weath er ing sur faces in stead of the bumpy weath er ing pat tern of peb ble con glom er ate else where in the ba sin, as cleav age planes cut through peb bles. De spite de for ma tion of peb bles, sig nif i cant po ros ity is ob served to have been re tained be tween the clasts. Equal-area plots of cleav age poles in Fig ure 7b show a widely scat tered dis tri - bu tion, con sis tent with mul ti ple phases of de for ma tion. Equal-area plots of bed ding poles in Fig ure 7a show a dif - fuse gir dle nor mal to an east-south east-trending, shal lowly plung ing eigenvector 1, con sis tent with mapping showing folding of the low-angle detachment by northwest-trending folds. Sweeny Creek The area around the head wa ters of Sweeny Creek was mapped, ex pand ing map ping of the Tumeka Creek study area re ported in Waldron et al. (26). Rock units in this area be long to the Skelhorne as sem blage of the Bow ser Lake Group (Evenchick, 24). Prior map ping in the Sweeny Creek area re vealed north-north east and northnorth west-trending folds con verg ing with out in ter sec tion, Fig ure 4. Z-asym met ric en échelon quartz veins, in di cat ing dextral and re verse sense of shear; ar rows in di cate in ter preted sense of shear; view to wards the west-north west. Fig ure 5. S-asym met ric en échelon quartz veins, in di cat ing sinistral and re verse sense of shear; ar rows in di cate in ter preted sense of shear; view to wards the west-south west. 328 Geoscience BC, Re port 27-1
4 6 8 1 82 26 2 4 6 2 4 474 1 2 2 23 29 2 2 4 36 4 8 1 78 4 56 8 77 24 24 26 55 26 6 8 4 12 2 28 2 2 22 26 6 4 2 24 1 92 2 8 29 22 8 2 8 1 96 26 26 67 42 8 4 45 48 62 6 8 9 2 31 Synform 25 1 8 48 11 22 43 Antiform 2 71 35 33 51 22 1 1 7 82 6 8 6 8 7 24 22 22 4 2 6 32 Late steep fault 6 2 8 1 9 8 6 6 8 2 8 4 1 92 6398 Inferred decollement 8 1 74 6 8 22 4 4 8 2 47 2 2 1 84 Bedding-form lines Observed Inferred 2 75 31 82 4 JurassicCretaceous Bowser Lake Group 4 4 8 6 34 2 2 85 28 31 2 36 34 33 4 2 2 Mainly grey sandstone, siltstone, with coal and fossil plant remains 8 55 4 4 148 2 6 1 84 71 8 2 8 1 6396 6 Red and rust-weathered conglomerate and subordinate sandstone 61 2 4 8 6 475 4 28 6 8 1 km 8 6 4 6 26 6 Figure 6. Structure of the Cartmel Lake area; note distribution of early décollement and 1later folds. 2 8 2 1 94 within an area dominated by northwest-trending folds (Evenchick, 24). Folds mapped in the Sweeny Creek area have variable orientations, plunging between northnorthwest and north-northeast. Figure 8 shows axial traces that converge with each other but do not crosscut. The map pattern suggests that these folds are of the same generation Geological Fieldwork 26, Paper 27-1 1 7 8 6 2 6 2 Contour elevations in metres 41 Form lines mark thick conglomerate beds 2 8 8 2 22 26 4 2 Eaglenest Assemblage 35 27 6 and are part of a larger system of conical folds. Map relationships also show that all north to northeast folds appear to increase in plunge toward the northeast. All bedding in the northern part of the study area dips to the northeast; regionally, the structures in this area are part of the southwest limb of a gentle northwest-trending syncline, with a wave- 329
A B E1 = 13 = 76 Figure 7. Lower-hemisphere equal-area projection of structural data collected in the Cartmel Lake area: A) poles to bedding; E1, eigenvector 1; dashed line shows principal E1 girdle plane; B) poles to cleavage. Figure 8. Structure of the Sweeny Creek area, showing orientations of structures and axial traces. 33 Geoscience BC, Report 27-1
length on ap prox i mately the 5 km scale, ob served to the north of Sweeny Creek. The syncline is in ter preted to have increased the plunge of north-trending folds. DISCUSSIO All three ar eas mapped show over print ing of struc - tures. At Iskut ridge, a ma jor north to north-north easttrending fold is re folded by smaller, south east-trending struc tures. The Cartmel Lake area is char ac ter ized by over - print ing of north west-trending folds on an ear lier de tach - ment; folds as so ci ated with the ear lier de tach ment show north east trends. The Cartmel Lake area may re cord the im - por tance of de tach ments in the de for ma tion his tory of the area, as sug gested by Evenchick (91b). Over print ing is less clearly dis played at Sweeny Creek, but pro gres sive down-plunge steep en ing of north east-trending folds is con - sis tent with refolding by folds with north west trends. Thus, struc tures in all three ar eas are con sis tent with early, gen er - ally north west-south east short en ing, followed by northeast-southwest shortening. The de vel op ment of type I dome-and-ba sin in ter fer - ence pat terns is de pend ent upon over print ing of folds at a high an gle. Large domes pro spec tive for pe tro leum ac cu - mu la tion re sult from in-phase in ter fer ence of anticlines of sim i lar am pli tude. Where struc tures of dif fer ent wave - lengths or am pli tudes in ter fere, the re sult ing pat terns are more com plex. Fold am pli tudes, wave lengths and in ter sec - tion an gles are vari able in the Skeena Fold Belt. At Iskut ridge, the early north to north-north east folds are map scale, and folds with south east trends are rel a tively mi nor struc - tures. If pres ent in the subsurface, such a struc tural pat tern could serve as an ar ray of small pe tro leum traps, as south - east-trending folds could trap pe tro leum lo cated in early folds. At Sweeny Creek, there is a north west-trending kilo - metre-scale syncline and the north-trending folds have wave lengths on the hun dred metre scale. Down-plunge steep en ing of early folds by a north west-trending fold of this type could drive subsurface pe tro leum mi gra tion to the south, form ing a broad pool with sev eral pock ets within early folds. The Cartmel Lake area in cludes mul ti ple sets of spaced pres sure-so lu tion cleav age within con glom er ate that dis solves peb bles but does not oblit er ate po ros ity in the ma trix. At Cartmel Lake, early folds are likely as so ci ated with décollements. Lo cat ing such structures in the subsurface would provide insights on the location of potential petroleum traps. ACKOWLEDGMETS The au thors thank Geoscience BC for con tin u ing to sup port this re search. Ad di tional field costs were sup ported by at u ral Sci ences and En gi neer ing Re search Coun cil of Can ada (SERC) Dis cov ery Grant A858 to J. Waldron. H. Tomes and C. Bloomberg pro vided ex cel lent as sis tance in the field. He li cop ter sup port was pro vided by Quan tum, Prism and Pa cific West ern He li cop ters. Re search at Cartmel Lake was made pos si ble through a re search per mit from the Spatsizi Pla teau Wil der ness Pro vin cial Park. Sabina Sil ver Cor po ra tion and the Eskay Creek mine were very hos pi ta ble in al low ing us to visit their sites. Help ful re - view by Philippe Erdmer and Rob Stevens improved the manuscript. REFERECES Bone, K.E. (22): Rel a tive tim ing and sig nif i cance of fold ing in the west ern Skeena Fold Belt, north west ern Bow ser Ba sin, Brit ish Co lum bia: in ter pre ta tion of struc tural and seis mic reflection data; unpublished MSc thesis, Uni ver sity of Brit - ish Columbia, Vancouver, BC, 1 pages. Bustin, R.M. and Mof fat, I.W. 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Co lum bia; in Geo log i cal Field work 22, BC Min is try of En ergy, Mines and Pe tro leum Re sources, Pa per 23-1, pages 257 2. Ramsay, J.G. (67): Fold ing and Frac tur ing of Rocks; McGraw- Hill, ew York, 567 pages. Read, P.B., Brown, R.L., Psutka, J.F., Moore, J.M., Journeay, M., Lane, L.S., Or chard, J.J. (89): Ge ol ogy, More and For rest Kerr creeks (parts of 14B/1,,, and 14G/1, 2); Geo - log i cal Sur vey of Can ada, Open File 294, scale 1:5. Roth, T., Thomp son, J.F.H. and Barrett, T.J. (99): The pre cious metal-rich Eskay Creek de posit, north west ern Brit ish Co - lumbia; Chapter in Vol ca nic-as so ci ated Mas sive Sul fide De pos its: Pro cesses and Ex am ples in Mod ern and An cient Set tings, Barrie, C.T. and Hannington, M.D., Ed i tors, Re - views in Eco nomic Ge ol ogy, vol ume 8, pages 357 373. Waldron, J.W.F., Gagnon, J-F., Loogman, W. and Evenchick, C.A. (26): Ini ti a tion and de for ma tion of the Ju ras sic Cre ta - ceous Bowser Basin: implications for hydrocarbon explora - tion in north-cen tral BC; in Geological Fieldwork 25, BC Min is try of En ergy, Mines and Pe tro leum Re sources, Pa per 26-1 and Geoscience BC, Re port 26-1, pages 347 36. 332 Geoscience BC, Re port 27-1