FROM MONKEY TO HUMAN B.J. TAYGUSHANOV, E.V. EFREMOV

working to increase the titer, volume and quality of the resulting biogasoline. Nevertheless, this is a case of the first successful synthesis of gasoline by bacteria. And it undoubtedly proves the biogenic origin of oil. On the other hand, a strong fact in favor of the abiotic oil origin is the increase of oil reserves in long operated oil and gas fields. In fact, today there is no single unanimously excepted theory of oil origin. References 1. Anders, E., Hayatsu, R., and Studier, M. H. Organic compounds in meteorites. Science, 1973. - p.781-790. 2. Mendeleev, D., 1877. Oil origin // Scientific Reveiws. - Vol. VIII, p. 409-416. 3. Kravtsov, A. I., 1975. Generation of oil and criteria for exploration for oil. Razmeshchniya Prom. Mestorozhd. Nefti Gaza (G. N. Dolenko, ed.), p. 38-48. Naukova Dumka: Kiev. 4. Porfir'ev, V. B., 1974. Origin of petroleum. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 58, p. 3-33. FROM MONKEY TO HUMAN B.J. TAYGUSHANOV, E.V. EFREMOV Scientific advisor associate professor N.Y. Gutareva National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk, Russia Aim: in this article I want to tell about evolution of homo-sapiens, and stages which he passed. The period of prehistory or primitive state embraces millions of years. The man was born on the earth in this period. The origin of man is the subject of scientific debate. The development of human species is assumed not to form a continuous straight line. Scientists consider that different types of ancient humans differing from each other by the structure of the body, skull, brain volume could co-exist. Some of them were forming a dead-end line of development and becoming extinct. Until now scientists argue over the question connecting with the birthplace of humanity. Some believe that the home of the man is Southern and Eastern Africa. Others believe that there were several centers of human origin, including Asia and Southern Europe. According to Darwin's theory the man has evolved from an ape. Extant apes represent 4 kind with 7 species, although the opinion about ЭСО ЧЮЦЛОr ШП spомтоs ШП ШrКЧРЮЭКЧs КЧН РШrТХХКs Тs КЛsОЧЭ. LОЭ s НОsМrТЛО ШЮr closest relatives briefly. Orangutans (Pongo) are the only modern apes that live in Asia (in tropical rain forests). They are on the verge of extinction. It is the largest of the tree- 146

animals which are living now. Its growth is 1.2-1.5 m and weight is 32-82 kg. Orangutans can live up to 50 years in the wild. Gorillas (Gorilla) are the largest of extant primates. They are under the threat of extinction due to poaching mainly. They inhabit the forests of central Africa, live on the ground, moving on four limb with a support on the knuckles clenched fists. Adult males have a height up to 1.75 m and a weight of 200 kg, and adult females have about 1.4 m and 100 kg respectively. Chimpanzees (Pan) inhabit the tropical forests and wet savannas of western and central Africa. They are under the threat of extinction. The male of common chimpanzee has growth up to 1.7 meters and weigh up to 70 kg (females are slightly smaller). Common chimpanzees are omnivorous; they are characterized by a very complex social structure. They hunt in packs consisting of males of the second rank under the leadership of a dominant male [1]. But the exact time of divergence evolutionary lineages of humans and chimpanzees is unknown. This is probably happened 6-8 million years ago. Although the relative differences between the genomes of humans and chimpanzees are very low (1.2 %), they still account for about 30 million nucleotides. This is mainly single nucleotide substitutions, but there are quite insertions - deletions of long stretches of sequences. Many of these differences are likely to have no noticeable effect on the phenotype, but we still do not know how many mutations must occur in the genome of the chimpanzee in order to obtain a no man. So our understanding of morphological evolution of man is largely based on fossil remains. Fortunately we have a fairly large number of fossils that belong to the human evolutionary line (that is not true of an evolutionary line of the chimpanzee). In Darwin's time there were virtually no data of paleoanthropology. In the XX century the situation has been changed radically. It has been made a lot of great finds, on the basis that a fairly consistent picture of the linear evolution of man emerges. However, a real breakthrough has occurred in paleoanthropology in the last 15 years. A number of new branches of the evolutionary tree of man were opened, which was much more extensive than previously thought. The number of described species has doubled. New data in many cases forced to abandon previous views. It has become clear that human evolution was not linear; it was more bush-like pattern. In many cases there were simultaneously in three-four kinds and may be even more including the same area. The current situation where there is only one kind of Homosapiens is not typical. The early history of the fossils (up to 4.4 million years ago) includes a few poorly preserved remains. The first of them is a Chadian ardipitek (originally described under the name sahelantrop), presented an almost complete skull and jaw fragments of a few individuals. These findings from the approximate age of 7 million years have been made in the Republic of Chad (hence the species name) in 2001. The volume of the brain and the presence of powerful pull ЭШРОЭСОr ТЭ s ЛrШа ТЧ sэrюмэюrо ЭШ МСТЦpКЧгООs, ЛЮЭ ЭСОrО КrО sшцо sтрчтптмкчэ different features. This creature is believed to have already been an orthograde (foramen magnum is shifted forward in comparison with monkeys, that is the spine was attached to the skull not behind but at the bottom), but to test this 147

hypothesis, one skull is not enough. Interestingly, the Chadian ardipitek did not live in the open savannah, and mixed terrain, where open areas interspersed with forest. Next by seniority find (the age is about 6 million years) was made in Kenya in 2000. It is Tugenian ardipitek (he is also an orrorin). Its teeth and bones of the limbs are preserved. He has just moved on two legs and also lived in woodland. In general, today it has become clear that the two-legged were characteristic of members of the evolutionary lines originally. It partly contradicts the old notion that the transition to walking on two legs was associated with adaptation to life in the open spaces. More complete findings at the age of 4.4 million years have been НОsМrТЛОН Кs ArНТpТЭСОМЮsrКЦТНЮs ( rкцтн Тs rшшэ ТЧ ЭСО ХШМКХ НТКХОМЭ). TСО sфюхх of this creature in the structure was similar to skull of Chadian ardipitek. The brain size was small (300-500 cm 3), the jaws have not acted on. Judging by the structure of the teeth, Ar. ramidus were omnivores. They were both able to walk on land on two feet without relying on the hands and climb trees (their feet could encircle the branch). They lived apparently in the woodland. Findings of the oldest species of Australopithecus (Au. anamensis, anam is a lake in the local dialect) are numerous and have an age of 4.2-3.9 million years. Masticatory apparatus of that Australopithecus was much more powerful than that of the A. ramidus. These oldest Australopithecus lived apparently in the savannas and were the ancestors of A. afarensis. Fossil remains of Australopithecus afarensis are aged 3.8-3.0 million years old, and include many well-known skeleton of a woman named Lucy (the age is 3.2 million years old, it was found in 1974). The growth of Lucy was 1.3 m, males were slightly higher. The volume of the brain of this species was relatively small (400-450 cm 3), a powerful masticatory apparatus is adapted to grinding coarse meal. Australopithecines were omnivores, but the basis of their diet was vegetarian. The structure of the hyoid bone is characteristic of chimpanzees and gorillas, but not for people. So Australopithecus afarensis almost certainly did not have articulate speech. Thus, the upper part of the body of this kind was typical for the great apes, but the bottom was typical for people. In particular the foot has lost the ability to grip things, so that walking upright was the main form of transport. However, it is not clear whether A. afarensis spent much of their time in trees, because of the possibility of this structure shows the hands similar to the forelimbs of a gorilla. This species of Australopithecus met in woodland, grass and biomes along the banks of rivers. The latest Australopithecus species (Australopithecus africanus ) is presented by the fossils at the age of 3.0-2.5 million years old, found in Southern Africa. This species of Australopithecus was similar to the previous one, but differed from it a bit larger size and more approximate to human facial features. This species apparently lived in open areas. Overall the data of paleoanthropology show that in the period from about 6 to 1 million years ago, that is during five million years, quite large and diverse group of bipedal apes lived and prospered in Africa that his manner of movement on two legs were very different from all other monkeys. 148

However, the size of the brain of the two-legged ape did not differ from the modern chimpanzee. And there is no reason to assume that they are superior to chimpanzees in their intellectual abilities. The third and final stage of human evolution began 2.4 million years ago. In one of the lines of bipedal apes there has been a new evolutionary trend namely the increase of the brain started. Since that time known fossils belonging to the species Homo habilis (Homohabilis) with a cranial capacity of 500-750 cm3 and with smaller than Australopithecus teeth ( but larger than that of modern humans). The proportions of individuals with Homo habilis is still more similar to those of Australopithecus, the hands are quite long (in relation to the body). The growth of Homo habilis was about 1.3 m and weight was 30-40 kg. The representatives of this kind seem to have been able to have a primitive speech (in the snapshot of the brain seen protrusion corresponding Broca's area, the presence of which is necessary for the formation of speech). In addition Homohabilis was the first species for which it was characterized by the production of stone tools. Modern monkeys are not able to produce such weapons; even the most talented of them have made only very modest success in this, although the experimenters tried to teach them. Homo habilis began to include in the diet of large meat of dead animals and their stone tools he is likely to have used for butchering or meat scraped off the bones. These early humans were scavengers evidenced in particular the fact that traces of stone tools on the bones of large herbivores are teeth marks on top of large predators. The predators of course were the first who get to the victim, and people used the remains of their meals. Olduvai tools (named for the location - Olduvai Gorge) are the most ancient type of stone tools. They represent by the stones from which with other stones plates were chipped. The second period of growth of the brain (and body size) coincides with an increase in the proportion of meat in their diet. Fossil remains that carried more features characteristic of modern humans belong to Homo erectus - Homoerectus ( and sometimes to several other species). They appeared in the fossil record 1.8 million years ago. The volume of the brain of Homo erectus was 750-1225 cm3 were protruding jaw, cheek teeth are large, well-marked eyebrows, chin jut out. The structure of the pelvis in women has allowed them to give birth to children with a large head. Homo erectus was able to make quite sophisticated stone tools (the so - called Acheulean type) and the use of fire (including cooking). Tools of the Acheulean type are between 1.5-0.2 million years. The most characteristic of them for its multifunctionality called the "Swiss Army knife of prehistoric man." They can be cut, chop, dig up the roots and kill the animals. According to molecular data Homo sapiens evolved from a small population of Homo erectus, who lived in Eastern Africa about 200,000 years ago. The oldest fossils of anatomically modern humans were found just in the area and have just about this age (195,000 years). On the basis of genetic and archaeological data was able to restore the way of settlement Homosapiens and the approximate chronology of events. The first output from Africa took place 149

about 135-115 million years ago, but on the Near East, they have not moved; 90-85 thousand years ago there was a second exit from Africa. And from this small group of immigrants subsequently happened all the non-african humanity. People first settled along the southern coast of Asia. About 74 000 years ago there was a big eruption of Toba in Sumatra, which has resulted in a nuclear winter and a sharp cooling that lasted for several centuries. The human population has declined sharply. About 60 thousand years ago, people have got to Australia, and about 15 thousand years ago in Northern and Southern America [2]. Nowadays people inhabit all continents and develop their civilization. References 1. Alekseev VP Formation of humanity. Moscow, 1984.. 288-310. 2. JJ Roginskii The stages and rates of hominid evolution / / Soviet ОЭСЧШРrКpСв, 6. 1957, 27. GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH: THE OIL FORMATION P. V. ZAMULIN Scientific advisor assistant, A. V. Epikhin associate professor, Y. V. Kolbysheva National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk, Russia According to modern ideas the Earth is under the of age 4.5-5 billion years. In the history of the Earth two stages planetary and geological are distinguished.the geological stage is a sequence of events in the development of the Earth as a planet since the formation of the crust. In the course of it the landforms were formed and destroyed, the submergence, dereliction and glaciation occurred, various species of animals and plants appeared and disappeared. Scientists, trying to reconstruct the history of the planet, explore layers of rocks. All sediments are divided into 5 groups. According to it the following eras are distinguished: Archean (the oldest), Proterozoic (early), Paleozoic (ancient), Mesozoic (middle) and Cenozoic (new). The boundary between the eras runs through the largest evolutionary events. The last three eras are divided into periods, as in the sediments the remains of animals and plants are conserved better and in greater numbers [1]. Each era is characterized by the events that have had a decisive influence on the modern topography. 150