change and from the impact of the implementation of response measures

Similar documents
Launch of the ESPON 2013 Programme. European observation network on territorial development and cohesion

Resolution adopted by the General Assembly. [on the report of the Second Committee (A/67/440/Add.2)]

Weather Derivatives-Pricing and Design Issue in India

European spatial policy and regionalised approaches

GENEVA MINISTERIAL DECLARATION ADOPTED AT THE FIFTH MEETING OF TRADE MINISTERS OF LANDLOCKED DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, HELD IN GENEVA, 24 JUNE 2016

The Development of Trade Transit Corridors in Africa s Landlocked Countries

ACTION PLAN FOR WORLD HERITAGE IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN ( )

STATEMENT ON DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES OF THE LAND- LOCKED LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES AND THEIR PARTICIPATION IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE

ATPC ATPC. No. 10. African Trade Policy Centre. Briefing. I. Introduction. The Development of Trade Transit Corridors in Africa s Landlocked Countries

Annual Ministerial Meeting of Foreign Ministers of Landlocked Developing Countries

The view of Europaforum Northern Sweden concerning the future of EU cohesion policy

SDC s Global Programme Climate Change

World Meteorological Organization

The Future of Tourism in Antarctica: Challenges for Sustainability

Shetland Islands Council

Thoughts on designing an external shock vulnerability index for LLDCs

THE SEVILLE STRATEGY ON BIOSPHERE RESERVES

Aviation in a dual role: Mitigation

EXPERT ANALYSIS ON GEOGRAPHICAL SPECIFICITIES

Economic Benefit Study on Value of Spatial Information Australian Experience

OPINION. Results of EU Structural Policy in NSPA

South and South-West Asia LLDCs

Third Cohesion report February 2004

Council conclusions on Arctic issues. 2985th FOREIGN AFFAIRS Council meeting Brussels, 8 December 2009

The World Bank OECS Regional Tourism Competitiveness (P152117)

Yearly Average Maps of Solar Radiation in Azerbaijan

WMO Priorities and Perspectives on IPWG

Disclosures - IFFCO TOKIO General Insurance Co. Ltd. for the period 1st April, st December, 2018 S.No. Form No Description

PROGRAM OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION CHAIRMANSHIP OF THE ARCTIC COUNCIL IN

Climate Change in the Pacific: Scientific Assessment and New Research Volume 1: Regional Overview

National Land Use Policy and National Integrated Planning Framework for Land Resource Development

RESOLUTIONS 39,

Vienna Programme of Action (VPoA) for Landlocked Developing Countries for the Decade Africa Region Midterm review

Lessons learned from market forecasting

Weather Risk Management. Salah DHOUIB Underwriter Paris Re

Sustainable tourism in for Sustaibale Danang

Pure or Hybrid?: Policy Options for Renewable Energy 1

International Guidelines on Access to Basic Services for All

PROJECT ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

On pollution and R&D-based growth in a trade model between countries concerned and unconcerned about climate change

Mediterranean Sea and Territorial Development, Opportunities and Risks

Presentation by Thangavel Palanivel Senior Strategic Advisor and Chief Economist UNDP Regional Bureau for Asia-Pacific

Public Disclosure Copy

One way to deal with the unpredictable costs of winter weather. By Shane Belvin

CONFERENCE STATEMENT

The World Bank Local and Regional Competitiveness Project (P154263)

Indonesia - FCPF Readiness Preparation Grant FCPFR - Forest Carbon Partnership Facility

KENYA NATIONAL BUREAU OF STATISTICS Workshop on

2. Defining fisheries areas

Opportunities and Priorities in a New Era for Weather and Climate Services

CLIMATE CHANGE A THREAT TO THE FUTURE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE CARIBBEAN. U Trotz CCCCC

Economic and Social Council

The National Policy Strategy for Infrastructure and Spatial Planning CODE24 CONFERENCE. Emiel Reiding

The ESPON Programme. Goals Main Results Future

GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS. Session 7. Breakout discussion. discuss on regional and interregional. proposals 1. COLLABORATION BETWEEN PROGRAMMES

STATEMENT THE HONOURABLE JOSHUA SETIPA (SENATOR) MINISTER OF TRADE AND INDUSTRY OF THE KINGDOM OF LESOTHO AT THE

UN-OHRLLS. Opening Statement for. Ms. Fekitamoeloa Katoa Utoikamanu. High Representative and Under-Secretary-General

Trends in the Sound Management of Chemicals Perspectives from Asia and Pacific

Statement. H.E Dr. Richard Nduhuura Permanent Representative of the Republic of Uganda to the United Nations New York

MACRO-PRUDENTIAL RULES AND REGULATION (2015): DISCLOSURE REQUIREMENTS ANNEXURE I: FORMAT FOR ANNUAL DISCLOSURES DRUK PNB BANK LTD.

On-line supplement to: SMART: A Stochastic Multiscale Model for the Analysis of Energy Resources, Technology

16540/14 EE/cm 1 DG E 1A

ACTION PLAN FOR WORLD HERITAGE IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN

Poland, European Territory, ESPON Programme Warsaw, 2 July 2007 STRATEGY OF THE ESPON 2013 PROGRAMME

The World Bank Local and Regional Competitiveness Project (P154263)

Trade Challenges Facing LLDCs: How the ITT-LLDCs could respond to these issues

Declaration Population and culture

Implementation of the Political Declaration on energy cooperation between the North Seas Countries. Support Group 1 on Maritime Spatial Planning

INCREASING HURRICANES, DROUGHTS, & WILDFIRES. Paul H. Carr AF Research Laboratory Emeritus

Concept note. High-Level Seminar: Accelerating Sustainable Energy for All in Landlocked Developing Countries through Innovative Partnerships

Development of a System for Decision Support in the Field of Ecological-Economic Security

Group of Land-locked Developing Countries Position Paper

Aboriginal communities strengthen governance with location-based tools in the 21st century

The OSCE s Role in Trade and Transport Facilitation

Statement. Mr. Gyan Chandra Acharya

Presentation. Ms. Heidi Schroderus-Fox, Director, UN-OHRLLS

Structural change in a multi-sector model of the climate and the economy

Implementation Status & Results Argentina AR RENEW.ENERGY R.MKTS (P006043)

Jordan's Strategic Research Agenda in cultural heritage

LLDCS IN THE GLOBAL AGENDA: CHALLENGES AND INTERNATIONAL RESPONSES CHAIR OF THE GROUP OF LLDCS IN GENEVA

World Bank Group GEF Program

Testimony. Before the Subcommittee on Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources, Committee on Government Operations House of Representatives

Experience and perspectives of using EU funds and other funding for the implementation of district renovation projects

GUIDELINE: SD/GN/03 Last Updated on February 19, Application of Policy on Agency Minimum Standards on Environmental and Social Safeguards

PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATION COUNCIL

ISSUES BRIEF Plenary A Risk-informed Approach to Sustainable Development and Resilience for Countries in Special Situations

REQUEST FOR PROPOSALS

Governance and Disaster Recovery: Lessons from the Field

PART A Project summary

Alberto Troccoli, Head of Weather and Energy Research Unit, CSIRO, Australia ICCS 2013 Jamaica, 5 December 2013 (remotely, unfortunately)

Science Unit Innovative Spaces

PURR: POTENTIAL OF RURAL REGIONS UK ESPON WORKSHOP Newcastle 23 rd November Neil Adams

Biodiversity and Ecosystem services Thinking globally, acting locally

DRAFT PROGRAM Registration of participants, welcome coffee, exhibition tour

RETA 6422: Mainstreaming Environment for Poverty Reduction Category 2 Subproject

Statutory Framework of Biosphere Reserves. The Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves

Key Indicators for Territorial Cohesion & Spatial Planning Stakeholder Workshop - Project Update. 13 th December 2012 San Sebastián, Basque Country

Land Use in the context of sustainable, smart and inclusive growth

Planning a 100 percent renewable electricity system

Public Disclosure Copy

Transcription:

Insurance-r e l a t e d a c t i o n s t o a d d r e s s t h e s p e c i f i c n e e d s a n d c o n c e r n s o f developing countr y P a r t i e s a r i s i n g f r o m t h e a d v e r s e e f f e c t s o f c l i m a t e change and from the impact of the implementation of response measures Background paper for UNFCCC workshop - c o m m i s s i o n e d b y t h e U N F C C C S e c r e t a r i a t May 2003 Executive summary S u b m i t t e d b y Axel Michaelowa H e a d o f P r o gr a m m e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C l i m a t e P o l i c y H a m b u r g I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l E c o n o m i c s Neuer Jungfernstieg 21, 20347 Hamburg, G e r m a n y A r t i c l e. 4. 8 a n d 4. 9 o f t h e U N F C C C a n d A r t i c l e. 3. 1 4 o f t h e K y o t o P r o t o c o l c a l l t o l i m i t a d v e r s e e f f e c t s o n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s d u e t o t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s t o c l i m a t e c h a n g e, i. e. m i t i g a t i o n a n d a d a p t a t i o n. E m i s s i o n r e d u c t i o n m e a s u r e s c a n c r e a t e l o s s e s d u e t o r e d u c e d e x p o r t r e v e n u e s o f c a r b o n r i c h f u e l s. H o w e v e r, m o d e l l i n g t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e s e l o s s e s h a s n o t b e e n c o n c l u s i v e. I n t h e s h o r t t e r m, a v a i l a b i l i t y o f r e n e w a b l e e n e r g y t e c h n o l o g y c a n b e i m p a c t e d b y m i t i g a t i o n m e a s u r e s. S e q u e s t r a t i o n p r o j e c t s c a n e n h a n c e t i m b e r s u p p l y a n d r e d u c e r e v e n u e s f r o m t i m b e r s a l e s o f o t h e r c o u n t r i e s. La rge -s c a l e t e c h n i c a l a d a p t a t i o n p r o g r a m m e s c a n d r i v e u p p r i c e s f o r c o m m o d i t i e s u s e d a s i n p u t s. S o c i e t a l a d a p t a t i o n p r o g r a m m e s c a n h a v e n e g a t i v e i m p a c t s o n n e i g h b o u r i n g countries by reducing natural resource availability. However, climate policy measures wi l l n o t o n l y g e n e r a t e l o s s e s b u t a l s o b e n e f i t s, o f t e n i n t h e s a m e c o u n t r i e s t h a t e x p e r i e n c e l o s s e s. L o s s e s c o u l d b e r e i m b u r s e d i f e m i t t e r s w e r e l i a b l e f o r t h e i r e m i s s i o n s, w i t h l i a b i l i t y c o v e r i n g d i r e c t a n d i n d i r e c t e f f e c t s o f t h e e m i s s i o n s. I n s u r a n c e c a n b e p r o v i d e d i f l o s s e s c a n b e d e l i n e a t e d f r o m n o r m a l m a r k e t " n o i s e ". H o w e v e r, t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f f o r m a l i n s u r a n c e s e e m s t o b e l i m i t e d d u e t o s h o r t d u r a t i o n o f c o n t r a c t s a n d t h e d i f f i c u l t y t o c a l c u l a t e p r e m i a. Market-b a s e d f i n a n c i a l d e r i v a t i v e s a l l o w t o h e d g e a g a i n s t f u e l p r i c e l o s s e s, a l b e i t o n l y u p t o a c e r t a i n t i m e f r a m e. T h e i n s t r u m e n t s a r e c o m p l e x a n d e n t a i l r i s k s, i f o p e r a t e d w i t h o u t t h e n e c e s s a r y h u m a n c a p a c i t y. I n t h e l o n g t e r m, t h e b e s t a p p r o a c h t o p r e v e n t l o s s e s i s a n e c o n o m i c d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n. H e r e t h e C D M c a n b e u s e d a s l e v e r a g e t o m o b i l i s e f u n d s a s C E R r e v e n u e s a r e p e r f e c t l y n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h l o s s e s f r o m r e d u c e d r e v e n u e s o f c a r b o n - r i c h f u e l s.

2 1. Adverse effects of response measures in UNFCCC negotiations The necessity to address negativ e i m p a c t s o f t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s t o c l i m a t e c h a n g e i s s p e c i f i e d i n A r t i c l e 4. 8 a n d 4. 9 o f t h e U N F C C C a n d A r t i c l e 3. 1 4 o f i t s K y o t o P r o t o c o l. A r t i c l e 4. 8 i s t h e k e y p r o v i s i o n r e l a t e d t o t h e a d v e r s e e f f e c t / i m p a c t i s s u e s i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s. A r t i c l e 4. 9 e x p l i c i t l y r e f e r s t o t h e l e a s t d e v e l o p e d n a t i o n s a s d i s t i n c t f r o m d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s m e n t i o n e d i n A r t i c l e 4. 8. A r t i c l e 3. 1 4 o f t h e K y o t o P r o t o c o l e c h o e s t h e C o n v e n t i o n p r o v i s i o n s o n t h i s i s s u e b y requiring Annex I Parties to strive t o i m p l e m e n t t h e i r e m i s s i o n t a r g e t s i n s u c h a w a y a s t o m i n i m i s e a d v e r s e s o c i a l, e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d e c o n o m i c i m p a c t s o n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e i d e n t i f i e d i n A r t i c l e 4. 8 a n d 4. 9. I t a l s o c a l l s o n t h e C O P s e r v i n g a s t h e m e e t i n g o f t h e P a r t i e s t o t h e K y o t o P r o t o c o l ( C O P / M O P ) t o c o n s i d e r, a t i t s f i r s t s e s s i o n, w h a t a c t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r y t o m i n i m i s e s u c h a d v e r s e i m p a c t s. T h e C O P 7 d e c i s i o n o n P r o t o c o l A r t i c l e 3. 1 4 i n c l u d e s a n u n d e r t a k i n g b y A n n e x I P a r t i e s t o p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e i r a n n u a l i n v e n t o r y r e p o r t s u b m i t t e d u n d e r t h e P r o t o c o l o n h o w t h e y a r e s t r i v i n g t o m i n i m i s e a d v e r s e i m p a c t s o n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s. T h e f a c i l i t a t i v e b r a n c h o f t h e c o m p l i a n c e c o m m i t t e e s h a l l c o n s i d e r s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n. I n a d d i t i o n, t h e d e c i s i o n s t a t e s t h a t A n n e x I I P a r t i e s, a n d o t h e r A n n e x I P a r t i e s i n a p o s i t i o n t o d o s o, s h o u l d g i v e p r i o r i t y t o c e r t a i n a c t i o n s, s u c h a s r e m o v i n g s u b s i d i e s o n e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y u n s o u n d a n d u n s a f e t e c h n o l o g i e s. A w o r k s h o p o n t h e s t a t u s o f m o d e l l i n g a c t i v i t i e s t o a s s e s s t h e a d v e rs e e f f e c t s o f c l i m a t e c h a n g e a n d t h e i m p a c t o f r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s a l r e a d y i m p l e m e n t e d o n i n d i v i d u a l d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y P a r t i e s w a s h e l d f r o m 1 6 t o 1 8 M a y 2 0 0 2 i n B o n n. 2. Typology of potential negative impacts of climate policy measures on d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s a n d q u a n t i t a t i v e e s t i m a t e s. T h e r e i s a w i d e r a n g e o f c l i m a t e p o l i c y m e a s u r e s t h a t h a s a n e q u a l l y w i d e r a n g e o f p o t e n t i a l a d v e r s e e f f e c t s o n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s. T h e c r i t i c a l i s s u e i s t h a t t h e e f f e c t s f r o m t h e i m p a c t o f t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s f o r e x a m p l e o n t e r m s o f t r a d e, i n t e r n a t i o n a l c a p i t a l f l o w s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t e f f o r t s a r e u n e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d a n d d i f f i c u l t, i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e t o q u a n t i f y. I w i l l u s e s i m p l e e x a m p l e s i n b o x e s t o e x p l a i n t h e d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t s. 2.1. Greenhouse gas emissions reduction and sequestration U n d e r t h e K y o t o P r o t o c o l, i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s ( A n n e x I c o u n t r i e s ) h a v e q u a n t i f i e d e m i s s i o n l i m i t a t i o n a n d r e d u c t i o n o b l i g a t i o n s a n d t h u s w i l l e m b a r k o n m i t i g a t i o n a c t i o n. T h e n e c e s s a r y s c a l e o f m i t i g a t i o n d e p e n d s o n a n u m b e r o f f a c t o r s s u c h a s e c o n o m i c g r o w t h, t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t, s u p p l y o f d i f f e r e n t f u e l s a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f m i t i g a t i o n options worldwide (e.g. through the CDM). After the U.S. decision not to ratify the Kyoto P r o t o c o l a n d t h e M a r r a k e c h A c c o rds, some model runs on the global greenhouse gas market h a v e b e e n d o n e ( J o t z o a n d M i c h a e l o w a 2 0 0 2, D e n E l z e n a n d B o t h 2 0 0 2, E y c k m a n s e t a l. 2 0 0 1, B l a n c h a r d e t a l. 2 0 0 2 ). S e v e r a l p a p e r s ( M a n n e a n d R i c h e l s 2 0 0 1, L ö s c h e l a n d Z h a n g

3 2 0 0 2 ) m o d e l i n t r i c a c i e s o f An n e x B p e r m i t s u p p l i e s b u t c o m p l e t e l y l e a v e a s i d e t h e C D M. M o s t o f t h e s e m o d e l s c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e w o r l d m a r k e t p r i c e o f C O 2 w o u l d b e z e r o i f t h e c o u n t r i e s i n t r a n s i t i o n s e l l a l l t h e i r s u r p l u s p e r m i t s. I f t h e s e s u p p l i e r s r e s t r a i n s a l e s, t h e w o r l d m a r k e t p ri c e w o u l d r e a c h a b o u t 2 t o 5 p e r t C O 2 e q u i v a l e n t. T h e r e p o r t o f t h e 2 0 0 2 w o r k s h o p c o n c l u d e d t h a t a l t h o u g h s o m e m o d e l l i n g w o r k h a s b e e n d o n e t o d a t e t o a s s e s s t h e i m p a c t o f t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s, c u r r e n t m o d e l s a r e n o t a b l e t o m o d e l cl i m a t e p o l i c y i m p a c t s a d e q u a t e l y. R e s u l t s v a r y d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m o d e l u s e d a n d o n i n p u t d a t a o r a s s u m p t i o n s. E x i s t i n g m o d e l s p r o d u c e a w i d e d i v e r s i t y o f s h o r t -t e r m i m p a c t s, a l t h o u g h i f a f u l l p o r t f o l i o o f m i t i g a t i o n o p t i o n s i s u s e d, a l l m o d e l s s h o w t h a t p o t e n t i a l a d v e r s e i m p a c t s w o u l d b e r e d u c e d. I n t h e l o n g e r t e r m ( p o s t 2 0 2 0 ), w i t h more aggressive reductions, impacts may be greater a l t h o u g h t h i s d e p e n d s o n p o l i c y c h o i c e s. S o f a r, d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s d o n o t h a v e o b l i g a t i o n s t o l i m i t o r r e d u c e e m i s s i o ns. T h u s t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s a r e l i k e l y t o f o c u s o n v o l u n t a r y m i t i g a t i o n m e a s u r e s w i t h e c o n o m i c b e n e f i t s ( n o r e g r e t m e a s u r e s ) s u c h a s a b o l i t i o n o f f o s s i l f u e l s u b s i d i e s. 2. 1. 1 R e d u c t i o n o f d e m a n d f o r c a r b o n -r i c h f u e l s Any mitigation action in the energy s e c t o r w i l l l e a d t o a r e d u c e d d e m a n d f o r f o s s i l f u e l s w h i c h f a l l s p a r t i c u l a r l y h e a v i l y o n f u e l s w i t h a h i g h c a r b o n c o n t e n t ( B a r t s c h a n d M u e l l e r 2 0 0 0 ). T h i s i n t u r n w i l l r e d u c e w o r l d m a r k e t p r i c e s f o r t h e s e f u e l s. T h e f a l l i n p r i c e a n d e x p o r t v o l u m e w i l l r e d u c e r e v e n u e s o f fossil fuel exporting countries. However, market s h a r e, p r i c e a n d m a y b e e v e n a b s o l u t e p r o d u c t i o n o f f u e l s w i t h a l o w c a r b o n c o n t e n t ( n a t u r a l g a s ) w i l l r i s e d u e t o t h e d e m a n d s h i f t. T h u s t h e a d v e r s e i m p a c t s d e p e n d o n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e f o s s i l f u e l m a r k e t. O i l p r o d u c i n g d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s a r g u e t h a t t h e K y o t o P r o t o c o l, i f f u l l y i m p l e m e n t e d, w o u l d l e a d t o a l o s s o f r e v e n u e f o r t h e m. A c c o r d i n g t o O P E C s c a l c u l a t i o n s, t h e f i n a n c i a l i m p a c t o n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d a t e n s o f b i l l i o n s o f U S d o l l a r s p e r y e a r. T h u s O P E C c o u n t r i e s r e q u e s t A n n e x I c o u n t r i e s t o a s s i s t t h e m t o c o m p e n s a t e t h e s e l o s s e s. C o u n t r i e s importing f o s s i l f u e l s w i l l u n a m b i g u o u s l y p r o f i t f r o m t h e l o w e r p r i c e s. D u e t o t h e w i d e r a n g e o f p a r a m e t e r s t h a t i n f l u e n c e e n ergy markets, it is impossible to u n a m b i g u o u s l y s e p a r a t e t h e p r i c e a n d q u a n t i t y e f f e c t c a u s e d b y m i t i g a t i o n. Box 1: Loss through reduction of demand for carbon-rich f u e l s D u e t o t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e e l e c t r i c i t y g e n e r a t i o n s y s t e m f r o m c o a l t o w i n d i n A n nex B c o u n t r y A e o l i a, t h e c o a l e x p o r t s f r o m d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y C a r b o s t a n t o A e o l i a d r o p f r o m 1 0 m i l l i o n t p e r a n n u m t o z e r o. L i k e w i s e, t h e c o a l m a r k e t p r i c e f a l l s f r o m 2 0 t o 1 0 per t. Due t o l o n g-t e r m e x p o r t c o n t r a c t s w i t h t h e o t h e r i m p o r t e r s, o v e r a l l c o a l e x p o r t s f r o m C a r b o s t a n o n l y f a l l f r o m 5 0 t o 4 0 m i l l i o n t b u t p r i c e s h a v e t o b e a d j u s t e d. C a r b o s t a n c l a i m s a l o s s o f 6 0 0 m i l l i o n ( 1 0 0 0 m i l l i o n p r e v i o u s c o a l e x p o r t r e v e n u e s c o m p a r e d t o 4 0 0 m i l l i o n a f t e r A e o l i a s a c t i o n ) d u e t o m i t i g a t i o n

4 2.1.2 In c r e a s e d d e m a n d f o r r e n e w a b l e e n e r g y a n d e n e r g y e f f i c i e n c y t e c h n o l o g i e s M i t i g a t i o n a c t i o n w i l l m e a n a n i n c r e a s e d i n v e s t m e n t i n r e n e w a b l e e n e r g y / e n e r g y e f f i c i e n c y t e c hnology. Lower availability and higher price of such technologies for developing countri e s i s p o s s i b l e, i f s u p p l y c a n n o t c o p e w i t h d e m a n d i n t h e s h o r t t e r m. F o r e x a m p l e P V m o d u l e p r i c e s h a v e n o t f a l l e n i n t h e l a s t y e a r s i n t h e h i g h l y s u b s i d i s e d m a r k e t s o f G e r m a n y a n d J a p a n. G e r m a n w i n d t u r b i n e p r o d u c e r s s h u n e x p o r t m a r k e t s d u e t o t h e h i g h d e m a n d i n t h e i r h o m e m a r k e t. H o w e v e r t h e s e s u b s i d i e s s u r p a s s p r o j e c t e d m a r k e t p r i c e s b y s e v e r a l o r d e r s o f m a g n i t u d e a n d i t s i s c l e a r t h a t i n v e s t m e n t a t r a t e s d e r i v e d f r o m m a r k e t p r i c e s w i l l n o t l e a d t o d i v e r s i o n o f r e n e w a b l e t e c h n o l o g y e x p o r t s. I n t h e l o n g r u n p o s i t i v e i m p a c t s f r o m i n c r e a s e d r e n e w a b l e s i n v e s t m e n t w i l l r e s u l t. L o n g-t e r m a v a i l a b i l i t y o f r e n e w a b l e e n e r g y e f f i c i e n c y t e c h n o l o g i e s w i l l b e e n h a n c e d d u e t o e c o n o m i e s o f s c a l e t h a t l e a d t o l o w e r p r i c e s. Box 2: Loss through increased demand for mitigati on technologies D u e t o a n e w 1 0, 0 0 0 M W w i n d p r o g r a m m e i n A n n e x B c o u n t r y A e o l i a, a l l A e o l i a n w i n d t u r b i n e m a n u f a c t u r e r s o p e r a t e a t f u l l c a p a c i t y. T h u s t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y T e m p e s t o c a n n o t p l a c e a n o r d e r f o r 1 0 0 M W w i n d t u r b i n e s w i t h a p r o d u c e r i n A e o l i a. I t t h u s h a s t o s w i t c h t o a t u r b i n e p r o d u c e r i n B r e e z i a w h i c h c h a r g e s a p r i c e o f 1 2 0 0 p e r k W i n s t a l l e d i n s t e a d o f A e o l i a s p r o d u c e r s l i s t p r i c e o f 1 0 0 0 p e r k W. T e m p e s t o c l a i m s a l o s s o f 2 0 m i l l i o n ( 2 0 0, 0 0 0 / M W t i m e s 1 0 0 M W ) d u e t o A e o l i a s m i t i g a t i o n 2. 1. 3 T i m b e r m a r k e t e f f e c t s d u e t o c a r b o n s e q u e s t r a t i o n i n t e r r e s t r i a l v e g e t a t i o n C a r b o n s e q u e s t r a t i o n t h r o u g h a f f o r e s t a t i o n a n d d e f o r e s t a t i o n i s a l l o w e d u n d e r t h e C D M I n c r e a s e d f o r e s t r y a c t i v i t i e s w i l l l e a d t o a d e c r e a s e i n t i m b e r p r i c e s i n t h e f u t u r e d u e t o t h e e n h a n c e d s u p p l y. T h i s w i l l b e n e g a t i v e f o r t i m b e r e x p o r t e r s a n d p o s i t i v e f o r t i m b e r i m p o r t e r s. Box 3: Loss through timber market effects I n 2 0 0 0, t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y A r b o r i a a p p r o v e d a C D M a f f o r e s t a t i o n p r o j e c t o n 1 0 0, 0 0 0 h a w h o s e f i r s t h a r v e s t o c c u r s i n 2 0 2 0. I n 2 0 2 0, t h e c o u n t r y V e r d u r a l o g s 1 0, 0 0 0 h a a n d h a r v e s t s 1 m i l l i o n t o f t i m b e r. D u e t o A r b o r i a s t i m b e r s u p p l y, t i m b e r p r i c e s f a l l f r o m 5 0 / t t o 4 5 / t. V e r d u r a c l a i m s a l o s s o f 5 m i l l i o n ( 5 / t t i m e s 1 m i l l i o n t ) d u e t o A r b o r i a s s e q u e s t r a t i o n. 2.2 Adaptation to climate change I n c o n t r a s t t o m i t i g a t i o n, d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s h a v e a n i n t e re s t i n a d a p t a t i o n i f t h e y c a n r e d u c e t h e n e t c o s t s o f c l i m a t e c h a n g e i m p a c t s. A s a d a p t a t i o n c a n b e a n y t h i n g t h a t e n h a n c e s t h e r e s i l i e n c e o f a s o c i e t y ( a n d t h u s i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e d e g r e e o f d e v e l o p m e n t o f a s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l ), t h e p a p e r w i l l c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e m a i n o p t i o n s. I t w i l l n o t f o c u s o n t h e c o s t s o f a d a p t a t i o n b u t o n t h e i m p a c t s o f a d a p t a t i o n m e a s u r e s o n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s.

5 2. 2. 1 T e c h n i c a l a d a p t a t i o n t o m e t e o r o l o g i c a l e x t r e m e s A d a p t a t i o n t o s e a l e v e l r i s e a n d e n h a n c e d f l o o d i n g w i l l g e n e r a t e e x p e n s e s f o r c o a s t a l a n d r i p a r i a n p r o t e c t i o n s u c h a s d i k e s, s h e l t e r s, p u m p s a n d s l u i c e -gates. These expenses will s t i m u l a t e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n in d u s t r y a n d r a i s e p r i c e s f o r c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n p u t s. A s c o n s t r u c t i o n i s a l o c a l i s e d i n d u s t r y, t h e r e w i l l n o t b e m a n y d i r e c t a d v e r s e i m p a c t s f o r o t h e r c o u n t r i e s. Box 4: Loss due to technical adaptation I n 2 0 0 5, t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y N e p t u n i a b u i l d s a s e a w a l l o n 5 0 0 k m o f c o a s t l i n e. D u e t o t h e h i g h d e m a n d f o r b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l, e x p o r t p r i c e s f o r 1 m i l l i o n t o f c e m e n t t o n e i g h b o u r i n g M o n t a n i a i n c r e a s e f r o m 5 5 t o 6 5 / t. M o n t a n i a c l a i m s a l o s s o f 1 0 m i l l i o n ( 1 0 / t t i m e s 1 m i l l i o n t ) d u e t o N e p t u n i a s a d a p t a t i o n. 2. 2. 2 S o c i e t a l a d a p t a t i o n A d a p t a t i o n n o t o n l y e n t a i l s t e c h n o l o g i c a l f i x e s b u t a l s o i n c r e a s e s i n f l e x i b i l i t y t o l o w e r t h e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o c l i m a t i c e x t r e m e s. T h i s e n t a i l s e x p e n s e s f o r e a r l y w a r n i n g s y s t e m s a n d f o r i n s t i t u t i o n s s u c h a s a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d f o r e s t r y e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s. M a n a g e m e n t o f certain natural resources such as irrigation and hydropower systems or skiing resorts will h a v e t o b e c h a n g e d. D i r e c t a d v e r s e e f f e c t s o f s u c h a c t i v i t i e s a r e u n l i k e l y ; i n s o m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n d i r e c t e f f e c t s o n r e s o u r c e a v a i l a b i l i t y c o u l d r e s u l t ( s e e B o x 5 ). N o r m a l l y, s o c i e t a l a d a p t a t i o n w i l l h a v e b e n e f i t s c o n c e r n i n g o t h e r e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t i e s a n d t h u s a n c i l l a r y b e n e f i t s. F o r e x a m p l e, a n i m p r o v e d a g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e w i l l a l s o b e u s e f u l t o d e a l w i t h a n e w p e s t i n f e s t a t i o n t h a t h a s n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h c l i m a t e c h a n g e. B o x 5 : L o s s d u e t o s o c i e t a l a d a p t a t i o n I n 2 0 0 5, t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y F l u v i a i n t r o d u c e s a n e w o p e r a t i o n p l a n f o r i t s i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m t o b e a b l e t o w i t h s t a n d m o r e s e v e r e d r o u g h t s d u e t o pr o j e c t e d c l i m a t e c h a n g e. D u e t o t h e m u c h l o w e r c o s t o f i r r i g a t i o n f a r m e r s e x p a n d i r r i g a t i o n a n d t h e a m o u n t o f w a t e r d ischarged to neighbouring Desertum declines by 10%. Desertum argues that it has to reduce i t s i r r i g a t e d a r e a b y 1 0 0, 0 0 0 h a a n d c l a i m s a l o ss o f 1 0 m i l l i o n ( 1 0 0 / h a t i m e s 1 0 0, 0 0 0 h a ) d u e t o F l u v i a s a d a p t a t i o n. 3. P r i n c i p a l o p t i o n s f o r a l l e v i a t i n g l o s s e s a n d a p p l i c a t i o n s i n o t h e r c o n t e x t s F o r a l o n g t i m e, i n s u r a n c e a n d f i n a n c i a l m a r k e t s h a v e d e v e l o p e d m a n y i n s t r u m e n t s t o d e a l w i t h r i s k s. In t h e c l i m a t e c h a n g e c o n t e x t, a l l p u b l i c a t i o n s h a v e d i s c u s s e d o n l y i n s u r a n c e / h e d g i n g a g a i n s t d a m a g e s f r o m c l i m a t e c h a n g e, n o t i n s u r a n c e a g a i n s t l o s s e s f r o m a c t i o n t h a t aims to directly or indirectly reduce these damages (see e.g. Vellinga and Mills 2001). A n y i n s u r a n c e o r h e d g i n g a p p r o a c h w i l l r e d u c e t h e i n c e n t i v e t o a d a p t b e h a v i o u r t o t h e n e w c i r c u m s t a n c e s. F i n a n c i n g p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e s o f c a r b o n -r i c h f u e l s o u t o f i n s u r a n c e p a y m e n t s o r p r o c e e d s f r o m f i n a n c i a l d e r i v a t i v e s i n c r e a s e s e x p o s u r e t o r i s k s a n d u n d e r m i n e s t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e i n s u r a n c e / f i n a n c i a l s e c t o r t o c o v e r s u c h r i s k s i n t h e f u t u r e.

6 3.1 Provision of insurance I n s u r a n c e i s p o s s i b l e i f r i s k s, i. e. p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f a d a m a g i n g e v e n t, c a n b e a s s e s s e d i n a systematic way. Moreover, risks must b e s p r e a d a c r o s s a l a r g e s e t o f e n t i t i e s. M o s t o f t h e p o s s i b l e i m p a c t s f r o m t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s a r e f a i r l y e v e n l y s p r e a d. Insurers can also spread risks through reinsurance. However, their willingness to enter new and high -risk fields o f b u s i n e s s i s l i m i t e d ( M i l l s 2 0 0 3 ). I n t h e c a s e o f l o s s e s f r o m t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f c l i m a t e p o l i c y m e a s u r e s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e e v e n t t r i g g e r i n g i n s u r a n c e p a y m e n t s d i f f e r f r o m n o r m a l i n s u r a b l e events. In the latter case, past experience has genera t e d a p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a l o s s - triggering event. If events happen that go beyond this experience, premia are adjusted and insurance coverage reduced, as was the case on hurricane-s t r i c k e n i s l a n d s i n t h e C a r i b b e a n. Concerning losses arising f r o m t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f c l i m a t e p o l i c y m e a s u r e s, t h e f o l l o w i n g e v e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a n b e f o u n d : - I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f e m i s s i o n r e d u c t i o n m e a s u r e s i n v a r i a b l y r e d u c e s p r i c e s o f c a r b o n r i c h f u e l s b u t t h e e f f e c t w i l l b e m a s k e d b y a m u l t i t u d e o f o t h e r i n f l u e n c es - O n l y r a r e l y, t h e r e w i l l b e o n e d i s t i n c t e v e n t. N o r m a l l y m a n y s m a l l a c t i v i t i e s w i l l h a v e a g r a d u a l i n f l u e n c e o v e r t i m e - A d v e r s e e f f e c t s f r o m a d a p t a t i o n a c t i o n c a n b e s p e c i f i e d m o r e c l e a r l y a s t h e a d a p t a t i o n a c t i o n h a s a c l e a r s t a r t i n g a n d e n d p o i n t I n s u ra n c e c o u l d t h u s a p p l y i n t h e s h o r t t e r m i f s u i t a b l e d e f i n i t i o n s o f l o s s -triggering events c a n b e d e v e l o p e d ( s e e B o x 6 ). T h e s e c a n i n c l u d e p r o x i e s. B o x 6 : P o s s i b l e d e f i n i t i o n s o f l o s s -generating event A n i n s u r a n c e p a y m e n t c o u l d b e c o m e d u e - w h e n A n n e x B c o u n t r y A e o l i a s w i n d p o w e r c a p a c i t y h a s r e a c h e d 2 0 G W - w h e n c o a l w o r l d m a r k e t p r i c e s f a l l b e l o w 2 0 / t - w h e n a n n u a l c o a l e x p o r t r e v e n u e s o f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y C a r b o s t a n f a l l b e l o w 3 0 0 m i l l i o n - w h e n p r i c e s f o r w i n d t u r b i n e s r i s e a b o v e 1 2 0 0 /kw - w h e n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y N e p t u n i a c o m p l e t e s 5 0 0 k m o f s e a w a l l T h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e s e e v e n t s c a n b e a s s e s s e d a n d i n s u r a n c e p r o v i d e r s c a n c a l c u l a t e p r e m i a. E v e n u n i n s u r a b l e l o s s e s o f t e n a r e s p r e a d t h r o u g h p u b l i c f u n d s f i n a n c e d e s s e n t i a l l y o u t o f t a x p a y e r s c o n t r i b u t i o n s ( V e l l i n g a a n d M i l l s 2 0 0 1, p. 4 3 6 ). H o w e v e r, f o r c l i m a t e policy damages in other countries, taxpayers willingness to pay will be extremely low. A s t y p i c a l l y, l e s s t h a n 7 0 % o f t h e p o o l o f i n s u r a n c e p r e m i a i s r e c y c l e d t o c l a i m a n t s t o i n d e m n i f y t h e i r l o s s e s, i n s u r a n c e i s a p u r c h a s e w i t h n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s f o r t h e p u r c h a s e r, s o t h a t m a r k e t i n g c o s t s t e n d t o b e h i g h i n a n o n -c o m p u l s o r y m a r k e t. M o r e o v e r, i n s u r a n c e c o n t r a c t s g e n e r a l l y h a v e a d u r a t i o n o f o n e y e a r i n n o n -l i f e b u s i n e s s o n l y. W h i l e t h i s p r o t e c t s t h e i n s u r e r f r o m u n f o r e s e e n c h a n g e s i n t h e o p e r a t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t, i t t e n d s t o b e a s s o c i a t e d with alarming swings in price and availability of cover (UNEP -FII 2002, p. 45).

7 3.2 Allocation of liability Losses could be covered if greenhouse gas emitters we r e l i a b l e f o r a d v e r s e e f f e c t s f r o m t h e i r e m i s s i o n s ( G e r m a n w a t c h 2 0 0 3 ). T o l a n d V e r h e y e n ( 2 0 0 3 ) a r g u e t h a t a c o u n t r y h a s t o p a y c o m p e n s a t i o n i f a n a c t i v i t y u n d e r i t s c o n t r o l d o e s d a m a g e t o a n o t h e r c o u n t r y, a n d i f t h i s i s d o n e o n p u r p o s e o r d u e t o c a r e l e s s n e s s. A c o u n t r y w o u l d t h u s b e l i a b l e f o r e m i t t e r s o n i t s t e r r i t o r y. M a k i n g s u c h e m i t t e r s l i a b l e i s a p r o c e s s t h a t c a n t a k e d e c a d e s a s t h e c a s e s o f a s b e s t o s a n d t o b a c c o p r o d u c t i o n h a v e s h o w n, s o i m m e d i a t e r e s u l t s a r e u n l i k e l y. H o w e v e r, insurers are already b e g i n n i n g t o e x c l u d e r i s k s f r o m e v e n t u a l f u t u r e e m i s s i o n s l i a b i l i t i e s i n c o m p a n y d i r e c t o r s -a n d -o f f i c e r s l i a b i l i t y c o n t r a c t s ( B a l l 2 0 0 3 ). L i a b i l i t y c o u l d b e d e f i n e d a s c o v e r i n g t h e direct e f f e c t s o f t h e e m i s s i o n s ( c l i m a t e c h a n g e i m p a c t s ) a s w e l l a s c o s t s o f m e a s u r e s a i m e d a t preventing the direct effects ( m i t i g a t i o n a n d a d a p t a t i o n ). T h e l a t t e r c o s t s w o u l d i n c l u d e l o s s e s i n c u r r e d t o t h i r d p a r t i e s f r o m t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f m i t i g a t i o n a n d a d a p t a t i o n ( s e e F i g u r e 1 ). F i g u r e 1 : D i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f l i a b i l i t y Damages f r o m r e m a i n i n g impacts Costs o f e m i s s i o n r e d u c t i o n Costs o f a d a p t a t i o n Losses d u e t o emission r e d u c t i o n Losses d u e t o a d a p t a t i o n T h e m a i n p r o b l e m s a r e t h e e n f o r c e m e n t o f l i a b i l i t y ( c o u n t r y l e v e l, e m i t t e r l e v e l, c o n s u m e r l e v e l ) a n d i t s q u a n t i f i c a t i o n ( c h o i c e o f d i s c o u n t r a t e ). A s t h i r d p a r t y l o s s e s f r o m t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f m i t i g a t i o n a n d a d a p t a t i o n w o u l d a c c r u e q u i c k l y, t h e t e m p o r a l p r o b l e m r e l a t e d t o c l i m a t e c h a n g e i m p a c t s w o u l d n o t e x i s t h e r e. L i a b l e a c t o r s a r e l i k e l y t o i n s u r e t h e m s e l v e s. H o w e v e r, c u r r e n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n s u r a n c e a g a i n s t t h i r d p a r t y l i a b i l i t y i s o n l y d o n e a f t e r a v e r y c a r e f u l r i s k a n a l y s i s a n d a g a i n s t s u d d e n a n d a c c i d e n t a l o c c u r r e n c e s o n l y (UNEP -FII 2002, p. 37). 3. 2. 1 I n s u r a n c e b a s e d u p o n c o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m e m i t t e r s I n s t e a d o f b e i n g l i a b l e d i r e c t l y, e m i t t e r s c o u l d b e m a n d a t e d t o p a y t h e p r e m i a o f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y i n s u r a n c e a g a i n s t l o s s e s f r o m c l i m a t e c h a n g e a n d c l i m a t e p o l i c y. T h e i n s u r a n c e i n d u s t r y w o u l d h a v e t o c o m e u p w i t h e s t i m a t e s f o r t h e l e v e l o f p r e m i a n e c e s s a r y. T o a v o i d m o r a l h a z a r d, t h e i n s u r e d w o u l d h a v e t o b e a r a s m a l l s h a r e o f l o s s e s. I n 1 9 9 1, A O S I S s u b m i t t e d a p r o p o s a l o n a n i n s u r a n c e m e c h a n i s m, s e t t i n g o u t k e y e l e m e n t s f o r a n i n s u r a n c e p o o l t o s p r e a d l o s s r i s k s. T h i s i n s u r a n c e p o o l w a s t o d r a w i t s r e v e n u e f r o m m a n d a t o r y c o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s. W h i l e A O S I S f o c u s e d o n l o s s e s f r o m

8 c l i m a t e c h a n g e, p a r t i c u l a r l y s e a -level-rise, losses a r i s i n g f r o m a d a p t a t i o n t o t h e a d v e r s e e f f e c t o f r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s c o u l d a l s o b e c o v e r e d b y s u c h a p o o l. 3. 2. 2 I n s u r a n c e b a s e d u p o n c o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m i n s u r a n c e p o l i c y h o l d e r s I f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y d o e s n o t m a n d a t e e m i t t e r s t o p a y t h e p r e m i a a n d e m i t t e r s l i a b i l i t y c a n n o t b e e n f o r c e d, d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s w o u l d h a v e t o f i n d t h e f u n d s t o p a y t h e p r e m i a t h e m s e l v e s. A p o s s i b l e s o u r c e w o u l d b e t h e f u n d s e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e M a r r a k e c h A c c o r d s. I n t h e c a s e o f s c a r c i t y o f f u n d s, s u p p o r t c o u l d b e d e p e n d e n t o n a b i l i t y t o p a y, f o r e x a m p l e i n v e r s e l y l i n k e d t o p e r-c a p i t a i n c o m e. 3.3 Financial derivatives T h e r e i s a b r o a d r a n g e o f f i n a n c i a l d e r i v a t i v e s c o v e r i n g d i f f e r e n t l i f e t i m e s t o g u a r a n t e e r e v e n u e f r o m c o m m o d i t y e x p o r t s. C o m p a n i e s r e g u l a r l y h e d g e t h e i r s a l es. S t a n d a r d i s e d f u t u r e s a n d o p t i o n s a r e t r a d e d o n o r g a n i s e d c o m m o d i t y e x c h a n g e s. F o r m e t a l s, p e t r o l e u m p r o d u c t s, a n d c e r t a i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s e. g. c o f f e e, c o c o a, s o y b e a n a n d s o y b e a n p r o d u c t s, w h e a t, m a i z e, t h e r e a r e r e l a t i v e l y l i q u i d m a r k e t s, a n d f o r several c o m m o d i t i e s t r a d e d o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s, t h e v o l u m e o f c o n t r a c t s t r a d e d i s s e v e r a l t i m e s t h e v o l u m e o f p h y s i c a l p r o d u c t i o n ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l t a s k f o r c e o n c o m m o d i t y r i s k m a n a g e m e n t 2 0 0 3 b ). However, they are only available for relatively shor t p e r i o d s a n d f o r h o m o g e n e o u s c o m m o d i t i e s. T h u s t h e i r a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o b u f f e r i n g l o s s e s f r o m c l i m a t e p o l i c y m e a s u r e s i s l i m i t e d. L a r s o n e t a l. ( 1 9 9 8, p. 2 2 f ) d e s c r i b e e x a m p l e s h o w o i l -e x p o r t i n g c o u n t r i e s u s e t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s t o h e d g e a g a i n s t p r i c e d e c r e a ses. Over-t h e -c o u n t e r ( O T C ) i n s t r u m e n t s a r e b i l a t e r a l l y a g r e e d r i s k m a n a g e m e n t i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t a r e t r a d e d o u t s i d e o f t h e o r g a n i s e d e x c h a n g e s. O T C o p t i o n s a n d l o n g-d a t e d s w a p s c a n c o v e r m u l t i -y e a r p e r i o d s. T h e y a r e c o m m o n i n t h e o i l m a r k e t, c o v e r i n g p e r i o d s o f 5 t o 7 y e a r s ( U N C T A D 1 9 9 8 a, p. 3 8 ). T h u s t h e y c a n f o r m m o d e l s f o r t h e r e d u c t i o n o f l o s s e s f r o m c l i m a t e p o l i c y m e a s u r e s. T a b l e 1 s u m m a r i s e s t h e d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u m e n t s. T a b l e 1 : F i n a n c i a l d e r i v a t i v e s f o r p r i c e h e d g i n g Instrument Characteristics L i f e t i me Applicability in c l i m a t e p o l i c y c o n t e x t Forward P r i c e f i x e d a t f u t u r e d a t e, O T C. P h y s i c a l < 1 y e a r N o n e d e l i v e r y e x p e c t e d. Future Price fixed at future date, exchange. Less < 3 years L i m i t e d risky than forward due to margin p a y m e n t s. O p t i o n Price fixe d a t f u t u r e d a t e, O T C o r < 3 years L i m i t e d exchange. Premium paid at beginning. Swap E x c h a n g e o f s p e c i f i e d c a s h f l o w s a t < 25 years, High; can cover specific intervals (series of forwards). n o r m a l l y < 7 m u l t i p l e c o m m i t m e n t T a i l o r-m a d e c o n t r a c t s years peri o d s C o m m o d i t y b o n d R e p a y m e n t l i n k e d t o p r i c e. T a i l o r-m a d e c o n t r a c t s < 30 years High; can cover m u l t i p l e c o m m i t m e n t

9 p e r i o d s Source: for a detailed description of types, see UNCTAD (1998a) T h e h i g h e r t h e l i f e t i m e s, t h e l e s s s t a n d a r d i s e d i n s t r u m e n t s b e c o m e a n d t h e h i g h e r t r a n s a c t i o n c o s t s a r e. O f c o u r s e, m a r k e t e x p e c t a t i o n s p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n p r i c i n g o f a l l i n s t r u m e n t s. I f t h e m a r k e t e x p e c t s a q u i c k i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f c l i m a t e p o l i c y a n d a h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y o f f o s s i l f u e l p r i c e d e c r e a s e, p r e m i a f o r o p t i o n s / i n t e r e s t r a t e s f o r c o m m o d i t y l o a n s a n d b o n d s w i l l r i s e. T h e c u r r e n t h i g h p r i c e l e v e l o f f o s s i l f u e l s d u e t o t h e p o l i t i c a l i n s e c u r i t y i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t m a y b e a w i n d o w o f o p p o r t u n i t y t o n e g o t i a t e c o n t r a c t s a t a t t r a c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s w i t h a d u r a t i o n t h a t i s a s l o n g a s p o s s i b l e. 3.4 Savings and stabilisation funds R e v e n u e s f r o m t h e e x p o r t o f c o m m o d i t i e s c a n b e c o l l e c t e d i n t i m e s o f h i g h p r i c e s a n d b e d i s t r i b u t e d i n p e r i o d s o f l o w p r i c e s o r d e c l i n i n g o v e r a l l p r o d u c t i o n. O v e r t h e p a s t h a l f c e n t u r y, t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y h a s c o m e u p w i t h s t a b i l i s a t i o n o r c o m p e n s a t o r y m e c h a n i s m s t o h e l p d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s a l l e v i a t e t h e n e g a t i v e i m p a c t o f c o m m o d i t y p r i c e f l u c t u a t i o n s. T h e s e s c h e m e s h a v e t y p i c a l l y t a k e n t h e f o r m o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r p r i c e st a b i l i s a t i o n p r o g r a m s, i n c l u d i n g p h y s i c a l b u f f e r s t o c k s c h e m e s, s t a b i l i s a t i o n f u n d s o r v a r i a b l e t a r i f f s c h e m e s, a n d m a r k e t i n g b o a r d s. B u t m a n y o f t h e s e p r o g r a m s t h a t a t t e m p t e d t o s e p a r a t e d o m e s t i c c o m m o d i t y p r i c e s f r o m i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r i c e s o v e r t i m e o f t e n proved f i n a n c i a l l y u n s u s t a i n a b l e. M a n y o f t h e s c h e m e s f a i l e d b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e b a s e d o n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y s e t b e n c h m a r k s w h i c h r e q u i r e d l a r g e r e s o u r c e t r a n s f e r s i n y e a r s o f l o w p r i c e s. W i t h l i m i t e d borrowing capacity and generally unhedged exposure to pri c e r i s k s, t h e s t a b i l i s a t i o n p r o g r a m m e s w e r e d i f f i c u l t t o m a i n t a i n w h e n p a y m e n t s w e r e r e q u i r e d o v e r c o n s e c u t i v e y e a r s. T h e s t a b i l i s a t i o n c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m o d i t y a g r e e m e n t s a l s o p r o v e d u n s u s t a i n a b l e a n d a r e n o l o n g e r i n f o r c e ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l t a s k f o r c e o n c o m m o d i t y r i s k m a n a g e m e n t 2 0 0 3 a ). M o r e s u c c e s s h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d b y a c c u m u l a t i n g s a v i n g s w h o s e r e t u r n s w e r e t h e n u s e d t o s u b s t i t u t e f o r e x p o r t r e v e n u e s. S e v e r a l g o v e r n m e n t s u s e o i l f u n d s ; s o m e f o r s a v i n g s o t h e r s f o r s t a b i l i s a t i o n p u r p o s e s ( s e e T a b l e 2 ). L o o k i n g a t t h e o i l m a r k e t a n V e n e z u e l a, C l a e s s e n s a n d V a r a n g i s ( 1 9 9 4 ) f o u n d t h a t f o r a n s t a b i l i s a t i o n f u n d t o b e e f f e c t i v e s e v e r a l p r e c o n d i t i o n s m u s t b e m e t. M o s t n o t a b l y : o i l p r i c e s s h o u l d n o t f o l l o w a r a n d o m w a l k ; f i n a n c i a l m a r k e t s a r e i n c o m p l e t e ; a n d t h e r e a r e l a r g e a d j u s t m e n t c o s t s. T h e y c a n o n l y f u n c t i o n i f m a n a g e d i n a p r o f e s s i o n a l w a y ; r u l e s s h o u l d n o t b e c h a n g e d o f t e n ( F a g a n o 2 0 0 0 ). R e v e n u e s o f s u c h a f u n d c o u l d b e u s e d f o r diversification. However, policymakers always have an incenti v e t o s p e n d m o n e y i n a f u n d a c c u m u l a t e d b y t h e i r predecessors.

1 0 Table 2: Oil funds Name Country Start date V a l u e 2 0 0 2 (billion ) G o v e r n m e n t P e t r o l e u m F u n d Norway 1 9 9 0 8 0 F u n d f o r F u t u r e G e n e r a t i o n s Kuwait 1 9 6 0 Peak 100*, c u r r e n t l y 4 0 A l a s k a P e r m a n e n t Reserve Fund USA 1 9 7 6 2 0 Alberta Heritage Savi ngs Trust Fund C a n a d a 1 9 7 6 8 I n v e s t m e n t F u n d f o r M a c r o e c o n o m i c S t a b i l i z a t i o n V e n e z u e l a 1 9 9 9 3.5 State General Reserve Fund O m a n 1 9 8 0 2 Foreign Exchange Reserve Account Iran 1 9 9 9 1 N a t i o n a l F u n d K a z a k h st a n 2 0 0 0 1 S t a t e O i l F u n d A z e r b a i j a n 1 9 9 9 0.5 * b e f o r e t h e I r a q i i n v a s i o n i n 1 9 9 0, S o u r c e K U N A ( 2 0 0 3 ) Source: Melby (2002) T h e N o r w e g i a n o i l f u n d i s d e s i g n e d t o f u n d p e n s i o n s i n t h e f a c e o f d e c l i n i n g o i l r e v e n u e s o v e r d e c a d e s, t h u s h a s a n a i m s i m i l a r t o m u l t i -d e c a d a l r e v e n u e s t a b i l i s a t i o n i n t h e f a c e o f c l i m a t e p o l i c y. I t s p r e a d s i t s i n v e s t m e n t s i n e q u i t i e s a n d b o n d s o n a g l o b a l s c a l e ( G o v e r n m e n t o f N o r w a y 2 0 0 3 ). A f u n d w i l l o n l y b e s u s t a i n a b l e i f i t i s m a n a g e d i n a t r a n s p a r e n t m a n n e r. 3.5 Diversification T h e b e s t l o n g-t e r m i n s u r a n c e p o l i c y i s t o d i v e r s i f y a w a y f r o m c o m m o d i t i e s t h a t r u n price and demand risks. Many fossil fuel exporting countries have a good renewable energy resource base, especially concerning solar but also wind energy. Diversific a t i o n i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n w o u l d r e d u c e s e v e r a l r i s k s a t t h e s a m e t i m e. M o r e o v e r, t h e C D M c a n b e h a r n e s s e d t o p r o v i d e f u n d i n g a n d t e c h n o l o g y f o r r e n e w a b l e e n e r g y d e p l o y m e n t. A s t h e C D M i n c e n t i v e w i l l b e t h e s t r o n g e r, t h e h i g h e r t h e w o r l d m a r k e t c a r b o n p r i c e, it will be perfectly negatively c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e a m o u n t o f l o s s e s d u e t o e m i s s i o n r e d u c t i o n m e a s u r e s. N e v e r t h e l e s s, f o s s i l f u e l e x p o r t e r s s o f a r h a v e n e i t h e r t a k e n u p t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f t h e A I J p i l o t p h a s e n o r a r e e f f o r t s v i s i b l e i n t h e u p c o m i n g C D M p r o j e c t p i p e l i n e. A n o t h e r d i r e c t i o n f o r d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n i s t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f e n e r g y -i n t e n s i v e c o m m o d i t i e s. A s e n e r g y p r i c e s r i s e i n A n n e x B c o u n t r i e s, t h e y w i l l r e d u c e d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n o f s u c h c o m m o d i t i e s a n d i n c r e a s e i m p o r t s. S p e n d i n g o f f u n d s t o re d u c e t h e c o s t s o f g e o l o g i c a l c a r b o n s e q u e s t r a t i o n m a y l e a d t o a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e t h e c a r b o n p e n a l t y o f f o s s i l f u e l s l o s e s i t s r e l e v a n c e i f s e q u e s t r a t i o n b e c o m e s c o s t -competitive with emission reduction through renewable energy or energy e f f i c i e n c y. Diversification is the only viable strategy for the very long term as hedging instruments will n o t b e a v a i l a b l e f o r m o r e t h a n t w o d e c a d e s a t b e s t. T h e r e i s s t i l l a w i n d o w o f o p p o r t u n i t y t o

1 1 b e c o m e a n e a r l y p l a y e r i n t h e C D M m a r k e t b u t t h e n e c e s s a r y i n s t i t u t i o n a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e ( D e s i g n a t e d N a t i o n a l A u t h o r i t y f o r p r o j e c t a p p r o v a l, s p e c i a l i s e d c o n s u l t a n t s f o r d e v e l o p m e n t o f p r o j e c t d o c u m e n t a t i o n ) h a s t o b e d e v e l o p e d. 4. Evaluation of proposals made in the context of UNFCCC negotiations (Art. 4. 8 a n d 4. 9 ) In the negotia t i o n s, t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p o s a l s h a v e b e e n m a d e - Cooperation between Annex I and non-annex I Parties to create favourable conditions for investment in sectors where such investment can contribute to economic diversification. T h i s i s a s e n s i b l e p r o p o s a l b u t d e p e n d s o n t h e w i l l i n g n e s s o f A n n e x I c o u n t r i e s t o c o m m i t r e s o u r c e s - Annex II Parties assist developing countries in meeting their capacity building needs for the implementation of country s programmes which address these impacts. T h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d s u s t a i n a b i l i t y d e p e n d s c r u c i a l l y o n t h e s u b j e c t s t r e a t e d. - Annex II Parties are urged to provide financial and technological support for strengthening the capacity of developing country Parties identified in Article 4.8 and 4.9 of the Convention for improving efficiency in upstream and downstream activities relating to fossil fuels, taking into consideration the need to improve the environmental efficiency of these activities. T h i s a c t i v i t y i s c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e a s i t r e d u c e s c o s t s o f f o s s i l f u e l p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h u s r u n s c o u n t e r t h e e f f o r t o f d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n. - Facilitate to develop appropriate technological options in addressing the impact of response measures, consistent with national priorities and indigenous resources. T h i s n e e d s t o b e d e f i n e d b e f o r e i t c a n b e a s s e s s e d p r o p e r l y. I f a i m i n g a t s u p p o r t o f u s e o f m o d e r n f i n a n c i a l h e d g i n g t e c h n i q u e s, i t m a k e s a l o t o f s e n s e. - Cooperate among Parties in the technological development of non-energy uses of fossil fuels, and requests Annex II Parties to support developing country Parties to this end. T h i s p r o p o s a l o n l y a l l e v i a t e s t h e p r o b l e m i f t h e n o n -e n e r g y u s e s d o n o t l e a d t o c a r b o n e m i s s i o n s a t t h e e n d o f t h e l i f e t i m e o f t h e p r o d u c t. - Cooperate among Parties in the development, diffusion and transfer of less greenhouse gas emitting advanced fossil-fuel technologies, and/or technologies relating to fossil fuels, that capture and store greenhouse gases, and requests Annex II Parties to facilitate the participation of the least developed countries and other non-annex I Parties in this effort. I f c a p t u r e o f f o s s i l f u e l C O 2 a n d i t s g e o l o g i c a l s e q u e s t r a t i o n c a n b e a c h i e v e d a t l o w c o s t, t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f f o s s i l f u e l u s e w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t c a r b o n e m i s s i o n. T h i s w o u l d d e c o u p l e m i t i g a t i o n f r o m t h e r e d u c t i o n o f f o s s i l f u e l u s e a n d t h u s a v o i d a d v e r s e i m p a c t s f o r f o s s i l f u e l e x p o r t e r s. - Annex II Parties promote investment in, support and cooperate with, developing country Parties in the development, production, distribution and transport of indigenous, less greenhouse gas emitting, environmentally sound, energy sources, including natural gas, according to the national circumstances of each of these Parties. T h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h i s a p p r o a c h d e p e n d s o n e l a s t i c i t i e s o f s u b s t i t u t i o n b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t f o s s i l f u e l s. - Annex II Parties support for research into, and the development and use of, renewable energy, including solar and wind energy, in developing country Parties. T h i s i s t h e m o s t appropriate suggestion as it leads to a diversification, allows a leverage through the CDM and wi l l o f f s e t l o s s e s f r o m r e d u c e d f o s s i l f u e l e x p o r t r e v e n u e s t h r o u g h g a i n s i n t h e e x p o r t of renewable electricity or hydrogen;

1 2 - Identify the insurance-related actions to meet the specific needs and concerns of developing country Parties arising from the adverse effects of climate change and the negative impacts of response measures. H e r e t h e d e c o u p l i n g o f t h e t w o v e r y d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f i n s u r a n c e h a s t o b e a d d r e s s e d. 5. C o n c l u d i n g t h o u g h t s I n s t r u m e n t s t o r e d u c e l o s s e s f r o m t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f c l i m a t e p o l i c y m easures e x i s t o n d i f f e r e n t t e m p o r a l l e v e l s. T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f f o r m a l i n s u r a n c e s e e m s t o b e l i m i t e d d u e t o s h o r t d u r a t i o n o f c o n t r a c t s a n d t h e d i f f i c u l t y t o c a l c u l a t e p r e m i a. I n t h e s h o r t t e r m ( u p t o t h r e e y e a r s ), f i n a n c i a l d e r i v a t i v e s c a n b e u s e d t o g u a ra n t e e p r i c e s o f c a r b o n -rich export c o m m o d i t i e s u n l e s s t h e m a r k e t h a s a l r e a d y d e p r e s s e d t h e p r i c e. I n t h e m e d i u m t e r m u p t o a d e c a d e, c o m m o d i t y b o n d s m a y f u l f i l t h e s a m e f u n c t i o n b u t a r e d i f f i c u l t t o n e g o t i a t e. A l o n g-t e r m s t r a t e g y i s e c o n o m i c d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n w h e r e h a r n e s s i n g o f C D M f u n d s c a n p r o v i d e a l e v e r a g e t h a t c o u n t e r a c t s n e g a t i v e p r i c e e f f e c t s o n c a r b o n -r i c h c o m m o d i t i e s. A g e o l o g i c a l c a r b o n s e q u e s t r a t i o n s t r a t e g y w o u l d a l l o w c o n t i n u e d u s e o f f o s s i l f u e l s i f c o s t - effective and irreversible storage tec h n o l o g i e s c a n b e d e v e l o p e d. 5.1. Capacity building needs Market-b a s e d f i n a n c i a l d e r i v a t i v e s c a n b e d a n g e r o u s, i f i m p r o p e r l y a p p l i e d. E s p e c i a l l y f o r c o m p l e x d e a l s, t h e r e i s o f t e n a n i n f o r m a t i o n i m b a l a n c e : t h e f a i r c o s t s o f structuring the financing, or o f t h e r i s k m a n a g e m e n t i n s t r u m e n t, a r e o n l y k n o w n t o t h e p r o v i d e r. N e v e r t h e l e s s, a s s i s t a n c e c a n b e f o u n d b y t h o s e w h o f e e l t h e y d o n o t h a v e t h e s p e c i a l i s e d s k i l l s t o e v a l u a t e s u c h c o m p l e x f i n a n c i a l d e a l s. F u r t h e r m o r e, i f a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e strategy is chosen ( t h a t i s, a s t r a t e g y t h a t i s m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n t h e e n t i t y c a n h a n d l e ), t h e r i s k s o f u s i n g r i s k m a n a g e m e n t m a r k e t s c a n b e l a r g e. T h e p u r c h a s e o f o p t i o n s a n d t h e s t r a t e g i c u s e o f s w a p s ( i n p a r t i c u l a r, i f o p t i o n s a r e e m b e d d e d ) i n v o l v e s l i t t l e r i s k, a s l o n g a s d e c i s i o n -makers have ensured that the pricing is fair. However, using futures and over-t h e - c o u n t e r r i s k m a n a g e m e n t m a r k e t s i n a m o r e a c t i v e m a n n e r d o e s r e q u i r e a g o o d a n d r e l a t i v e l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d c o n t r o l e n v i r o n m e n t ( U N C T A D 1 9 9 8 b ). 5.1.1 Role of Governments C o u n t r y o f f i c i a l s o f f o s s i l f u e l e x p o r t i n g c o u n t r i e s a r e u s u a l l y w e l l -t r a i n e d i n a p p l i c a t i o n o f f i n a n c i a l h e d g i n g i n s t r u m e n t s. F o r l e s s d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s i n u s i n g f i n a n c i a l d e r i v a t i v e s c o u l d b e a n o p t i o n b u t t h e f a s t c h a n g e s i n t h e design of d e r i v a t i v e s l e a d s t o a q u i c k o b s o l e s c e n c e o f a c q u i r e d c o m p e t e n c i e s, u n l e s s u s e d r e g u l a r l y. G o v e r n m e n t s t h a t u s e f u n d s t o c u m u l a t e f o s s i l f u e l e x p o r t r e v e n u e c o u l d d i s s e m i n a t e t h e i r k n o w l e d g e a b o u t a n e f f e c t i v e m a n a g e m e n t o f s u c h f u n d s. D e v e l o p m e n t o f d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s s h o u l d b e t h e f o c u s o f c a p a c i t y b u i l d i n g a c t i v i t i e s. I t c o u l d b e c o m p l e m e n t e d b y t a r g e t e d C D M c a p a c i t y b u i l d i n g e f f o r t s f o r c o u n t r i e s l i k e l y t o s u f f e r f r o m a d v e r s e e f f e c t s o f c l i m a t e p o l i c y m e a s u r e s. 5.1.2 Role of private stakeholders P r i v a t e s t a k e h o l d e r s, s u c h a s f o s s i l f u e l c o m p a n i e s, a c t i v e l y u s e i n s u r a n c e a n d f i n a n c i a l i n s t r u m e n t s f o r r i s k m a n a g e m e n t p u r p o s e s. S o t h e y d o n o t n e e d c a p a c i t y b u i l d i n g.