Mineralogical and oxygen isotope composition of inorganic dust-fall in Wroc³aw (SW Po land) ur ban area test of a new mon i tor ing tool

Geo log i cal Quar terly, 2011, 55 (1): 71 80 Mineralogical and oxygen isotope composition of inorganic dust-fall in Wroc³aw (SW Po land) ur ban area test of a new mon i tor ing tool Maciej GÓRKA, Mariusz-Orion JÊDRYSEK, Dominika LEWICKA-SZCZEBAK and Janusz KRAJNIAK Górka M., Jêdrysek M.-O., Lewicka-Szczebak D. and Krajniak J. (2011) Min er al og i cal and ox y gen iso tope com po si tion of in or ganic dust-fall in Wroc³aw (SW Po land) ur ban area test of a new mon i tor ing tool. Geol. Quart., 55 (1): 71 80. Warszawa. We have ana lysed the min er al og i cal and ox y gen iso tope com po si tion of solid in or ganic at mo spheric par ti cles (SIAP) in Wroc³aw (SW Po land) to de ter mine po ten tial nat u ral and anthropogenic sources of de pos ited dust. The min er al og i cal com po si tions of SIAP and lo cal soils are very sim i lar and quite typ i cal. Dust sources were at trib uted to high emis sion sources (two large coal-fired power gen er a tion plants, i.e., Wroc³aw and Czechnica ) and low emis sion sources (mostly small fur naces for home heat ing). A mullite phase was con - firmed in the non-mag netic frac tion of high emis sion dust. The 18 O (SIAP) val ues col lected dur ing the study pe riod (from 20th No vem - ber 2003 to 25th May 2005) vary be tween 8.6 and 21.8. The 18 O val ues of soil gath ered near est to the pas sive dust col lec tor vary be tween 9.3 and 16.0. The 18 O val ues ob tained for hy po thet i cal anthropogenic sources of at mo spheric in or ganic par ti cles are: (1) 7.4 for low emis sion and (2) from 13.4 to 16.1 for high emis sion dust com po nents. The range of 18 O val ues ob tained for SIAP, soil and hy po thet i cal anthropogenic sources do not al low the un am big u ous par ti tion ing of anthropogenic par ti cles us ing iso to pic mass bal - ance. How ever, min er al og i cal and geo chem i cal ev i dence sug gests that a ma jor source (nat u ral or anthropogenic) of dust de pos ited in Wroc³aw prob a bly lies out side of the city. The pre dom i nant south-west wind di rec tion sug gests that ag ri cul tural ar eas, quar ries, the Sudety Moun tains, or in dus trial cen tres are pos si ble or i gins of SIAP in Wroc³aw. We also do not ex clude hy po thet i cal long-trans port pro cesses as a source of dust de pos ited in Wroc³aw. Maciej Górka, Mariusz-Orion Jêdrysek, Dominika Lewicka-Szczebak and Janusz Krajniak, Lab o ra tory of Iso tope Ge ol ogy and Geoecology, De part ment of Ap plied Ge ol ogy and Geo chem is try, In sti tute of Geo log i cal Sci ence, Uni ver sity of Wroc³aw, Cybulskiego 30, PL-50-205 Wroc³aw, Po land, e-mails: maciej.gorka@ing.uni.wroc.pl, mariusz.jedrysek@ing.uni.wroc.pl, dominika.lewicka@ing.uni.wroc.pl, janusz.krajniak@ing.uni.wroc.pl (re ceived: Sep tem ber 18, 2010; ac cepted: March 21, 2011). Key words: at mo spheric par ti cles, anthropogenic, ox y gen iso topes, Wroc³aw. INTRODUCTION At mo spheric dust rang ing from the fin est par ti cles (PM 1 par ti cles less than 1 m) to to tal sus pended par ti cles (TSP) and dust-fall can im pair hu man health (Dockery and Pope, 1996; Siegman et al., 1999; Inyang and Bae, 2006, van Zelm et al., 2008) and cause dam age to build ings (Wilczyñska-Michalik, 2004). In spite of mod ern iza tion of all branches of in dus try, the dust prob lem in large ur ban ar eas, in clud ing Wroc³aw (SW Po - land), remains critical. The conurbation of Wroc³aw, with ca. 640 000 in hab it ants, still has an old com plex road sys tem, which re sults in prob lems with air qual ity. Gen er ally, two types of anthropogenic at mo spheric pol lut ants are usu ally pres ent in ur ban ar eas: (1) low emis sion (from lo cal heat ing and traf fic pol lut ants); (2) high emis sion (from large in dus trial emit ters). Two heat and power plants are pres ent within the bor ders of the Wroc³aw conurbation: Wroc³aw (a larger one, sit u ated in the cen tral part of the city) and Czechnica (a smaller one, sit u ated in the sub urbs, in Siechnice). Al though these two plants sup ply the ma jor ity of the con ur ba tion with heat and elec tric ity, many parts of the city, es pe cially the old build ings down town, are still heated by in di vid ual home heat ers. Clas si cal meth ods of mon i - toring atmospheric pollutants in generally only provide informa tion about the amount of the pol lut ants (con cen tra tion or de - position) but do not provide qualitative information on the pollutants origin. The main problem in classical monitoring is how to dis tin guish an anthropogenic in put of pol lut ants from the natural background level. Mineralogical and geochemical stud ies to de ter mine dust or i gins have been per formed in other parts of Po land (Wilczyñska-Michalik, 1981; Manecki et al., 1988; Schejbal-Chwastek and Tarkowski, 1988, Jab³oñska and Janeczek, 2000; Jab³oñska et al., 2003) and else where in Eu -

72 Maciej Górka, Mariusz-Orion Jêdrysek, Dominika Lewicka-Szczebak and Janusz Krajniak rope (Querol et al., 2002; Moreno et al., 2004). Air qual ity in Wroc³aw has been in ves ti gated by other au thors and con - cerned: (1) daily fluc tu a tions of CO and NO x concentration between high build ings (Miko³ajczyk et al., 1999); (2) SODAR (Sonic De tec tion And Rang ing) meth ods to quan tify at mo - spheric pollutants (Drzeniecka et al., 2000); (3) PM 2.5 and PM 10 (dust par ti cles of di am e ter less than 2.5 and 10 mi crom e ter, re - spectively) concentrations (ZwoŸdziak and ZwoŸdziak, 2006; Sówka et al., 2010); (4) vari a tions in 34 S (SO 4 2 ) and 18 O ( SO 4 2 ) in precipitation and composition of dust (Jêdrysek, 2000, 2003; Górka and Jêdrysek, 2004; Górka et al., 2008); and (5) carbon isotope composition of organic particles in dust-fall (Górka and Jêdrysek, 2008). The geochemical and mineralogical analyses presented here are part of a multiparameter investigation of dust-fall in Wroc³aw during 2003 2005. Carbon isotope compositions from the or ganic frac tion of dust-fall have al ready been pub lished and il lus trate po ten tial pit falls in the use of pas sive col lec tion meth - ods for geo chem i cal anal y sis of dust-fall in a tem per ate cli mate (Górka and Jêdrysek, 2008). The main prob lem con cern ing car - bon iso topes in or ganic mat ter as de scribed by Górka and Jêdrysek (2008) was decomposition and maturation processes con nected with the growth of al gae, fungi and bac te ria in col lec - tors and possible contamination of the samples collected. According to investigations by other authors (Jackson, 1981; Jires et al., 2002), in flu ence of pas sive col lect ing method on the in or - ganic frac tion of dust-fall, which is the case here. In this study we ap ply two an a lyt i cal tech niques (i.e., min - eralogical composition and oxygen isotope analyses of the inorganic fraction) of deposited dust to determine relative contribu tions of nat u ral and anthropogenic sources. The ox y gen iso - tope com po si tion of aero sol-hosted quartz grains has been used to trace dust or i gin (Jack son, 1981; Mizota et al., 1996; Aléon et al., 2002) or to dis tin guish be tween ma rine and ter res trial sands (Yang et al., 2008). Many au thors have used the ox y gen and car bon iso tope com po si tion of car bon ate to trace the or i gin of fu gi tive dust (Wang et al., 2005; Cao et al., 2008). The most recent mineralogical and isotope geochemical techniques have been able to ap ply sin gle par ti cle anal y sis (Coz et al., 2009; Kita et al., 2009). The po ten tial ap pli ca tion of the ox y gen iso tope tool to dis - criminate between the primary natural soil minerals (mainly quartz) and sec ond ary anthropogenic min er als (mainly quartz and mullite), is sup ported by three as sump tions: (1) that anthropogenic min er als are en riched in 18 O due to iso to pic ex - change with atmospheric oxygen ( 18 O value about +23.5 ) in industrial processes; (2) that natural soil minerals have different oxygen isotopic compositions from anthropogenically generated minerals; (3) that deposited atmospheric dust collected in Wroc³aw has intermediate oxygen isotope compositions due to two-com po nent mix ing (Equa tion 1). The above as sump tions should al low us to cal cu late the anthropogenic im pact on Wroc³aw us ing iso to pic mass bal ance (Equa tions 2 and 3). 18 18 18 O O O [1] NAT ATMO ANTH 18 18 18 O X O X O [2] ATMO NAT NAT ANTH ANTH %ANTH O 18 18 ATMO 18 18 OANTH The 18 O value of nat u ral quartz de rived from ig ne ous and meta mor phic rocks var ies be tween 8 to 16, whereas quartz of low temperature origin (chert) shows 18 O val ues from 14 to 33 depending on formation temperature (Jackson, 1981). The idea min eral ox y gen may ex change with ox y gen in air has been re ported in ex per i ments of ox y gen ex change in the BaSO 4 -O 2 sys tem (Ha³as et al., 1982) or the melt ing of ba salt glass (Burkhard, 2001). Ha³as et al. (1982) re ported ox y gen iso to pic ex change be tween bar ite and ox y gen in air at 800 C. Burkhard (2001) con firmed that the ox y gen iso to pic com po si - tion of ba saltic glass ( 18 O value about 4.8 ) be came en riched in 18 O (to about 10.8 ) when heated to its melt ing tem per a ture of 1250 C in the pres ence of air. Lower tem per a tures did not influence the oxygen isotopic composition of glass. A very slight ox y gen ex change with gas eous ox y gen in an ex tremely thin layer (1 20 nm) has been also doc u mented in ex per i men tal stud ies with SiO 2 (Trimaille and Ganem, 1997) and mullite (Fielitz et al., 2003). On the other hand, in the archaeological investigations, one of main assumptions using the oxygen isotopic composition is the invariability of isotopic composition of silica sand in glass pro duc tion pro cess. It is com monly as sumed that the melt ing time and temperature do not influence the final oxygen isotopic com po si tion of glass, which de pends only on the pri mary ox y - gen iso to pic sig na ture of used sil ica (Brill, 1970; Henderson et al., 2005; Silvestri et al., 2010). In sum mary, we in fer that in our case the dust gen er ated in heat and power sta tions Wroc³aw will show al tered ox y gen iso - tope com po si tions due to iso to pic ex change with ox y gen in air dur ing com bus tion at tem per a tures of 1200 1400 C, and that this is dif fer ent from that of nat u ral soil de flated dust. O O NAT NAT EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Nine periods of sampling of atmospheric particles have been car ried out in Wroc³aw (SW Po land). Pas sive col lec tors, built of non-reactive materials (plastic) as described by Jires et al. (2002), were lo cated through out the city (Fig. 1). Collectors were lo cated 2.5 m above the ground. The col lect ing area of the collector was 0.0398 m 2 and the vol ume ca. 5 L. To avoid de - po si tion of large non-dust com po nents (leaves, in sects) each col lec tor was cov ered by a plas tic grid (mesh size 2 mm). 12 pas sive col lec tors were placed in ar eas of pre dom i nantly old-compact settlements, high traffic pollution, and distributed 1 3 km around the hard coal-fu elled heat and power sta tion Wroc³aw, the larg est sin gle emit ter in Wroc³aw (Fig. 1). All the col lec tors were in stalled in No vem ber 2003 and the sam ples were gath ered ev ery two months for nine col lec tion-pe ri ods. Before oxygen isotope and XRD (X-Ray Dif frac tion) anal - y ses, the dust ma te rial was dried, weighed and washed in 0.3 M HCl so lu tion (1 hour) in or der to re move in or ganic car bon phases (mainly car bon ates and hy drox ides) (Connin et al., 1997; Col lins et al., 1999). Af ter wards, the sam ples were [3]

Mineralogical and oxygen isotope composition of inorganic dust-fall in Wroc³aw (SW Poland) urban area test of a new monitoring tool 73 Fig. 1. Lo ca tion of the 12 pas sive col lec tors in Wroc³aw washed with hy dro gen per ox ide (30% H 2 O 2 ) in or der to re - move organic matter (solid organic atmospheric particles SOAP), as de scribed by Jack son (1985) by 3 4 weeks. The con tri bu tion of the or ganic frac tion to to tal dust has been de ter - mined by the weight loss and the to tal dust, the in or ganic min - eral fraction (acid-insoluble inorganic dust; SIAP) and the or - ganic frac tion (SOAP) were cal cu lated and ex pressed in mg/m 2 /day. Afterwards, representative samples were chosen rep re sent ing: (1) the sum mer sea son (pe riod 5: from 20.07.2004 23.09.2004) for all col lec tors; (2) the win ter sea - son (pe riod 7: from 22.11.2004 26.01.2005) for all col lec tors and (3) the whole study pe riod (from 20.11.2003 to 25.05.2005) from one col lec tor WR9 sit u ated 1 km north of the heat and power sta tion Wroc³aw. These se lected sam ples have been analysed for mineralogical and isotopic compositions. The mineralogical compositions were determined using the XRD method (XRD Philips, Institute of Geological Sci - ence, University of Wroc³aw). No additional mineralogical treat ment or sep a ra tion of in or ganic dust phases and soils was carried out before oxygen isotopic analysis. The anthropogenic ash from the elec tro-fil ters from heat and power sta tion Wroc³aw and Czechnica was sep a rated as mag netic and non-magnetic fractions using a permanent magnet. Before the 18 O anal y sis sam ples were de hy drated at 300 C. The 18 O analyses were made using the laser fluorination method (Sharp, 1990; Wiechert and Hoefs, 1995; Jêdrysek and Weber-Weller, 2000) at the Lab o ra tory of Iso tope Ge ol ogy and Geoecology, University of Wroc³aw. The re agent gas was BrF 5 and a CO 2 la ser was used. Ox y gen pro duced in the re ac tion was cryo gen i - cally pu ri fied (on two N 2 -traps). Final purification was in a Toepler mer cury pump, where any pos si ble flu o ride re ac tion prod uct not frozen in the two N 2 -traps, was caught by mer cury fill ing the pump. Fi nally, ox y gen was con verted to CO 2 us ing a graphite/platinum reactor. Oxygen isotopic ratios were determined us ing a Finnigan MAT Delta E mass spectrometer. The analytical uncertainty of the 18 O determination was below 0.2. The ox y gen iso tope stan dards used were the IAEA NBS-28 quartz and two inter-lab o ra tory stan dards (Laussane 1 Quartz 18 O = 18.15 and GeeWhiz Quartz 18 O = 12.55 ). The 18 O val ues are ex pressed in rel a tive to the V-SMOW international standard. The same an a lyt i cal meth ods were used to ana lyse the po - tential sources of inorganic atmospheric dust. The mineralogical and oxygen isotope compositions of soil minerals, anthropogenic high emis sion dust, anthropogenic low emis sion ash and min er als from the near est build ing cover were ana - lysed. Soil sam ples were col lected next to each pas sive col lec - tor dur ing one sam pling (on the 24.03.2005). The rep re sen ta - tive sam ples of elec tro-fil ter dust (from the Wroc³aw heat and power plant), ash (from the Czechnica plant and from lo - cal home heat ers) and build ing plas ter were col lected once dur - ing the en tire sam pling process, homogenized and ana lysed. Meteorological data were obtained from the Meteorological Observatory of Wroc³aw (University of Wroc³aw). Com - plete meteorological data were collected every minute. Pre - dominant wind directions and wind velocities were calculated as a sum of fre quency within in di vid ual an gle in ter vals. Maps of the spatial distribution of passive collectors in Wroc³aw and

74 Maciej Górka, Mariusz-Orion Jêdrysek, Dominika Lewicka-Szczebak and Janusz Krajniak the distribution of soil 18 O val ues were made us ing the Golden Soft ware Surfer 8.0, whereas graphs and cor re la tions were de - termined using the Golden Soft ware Grapher 6.0 software. RESULTS The geochemical and mineralogical data of inorganic phases of soil next to pas sive col lec tors are re ported in Ta - ble 1. The mass of the par ti cles col lected us ing the pas sive col lec tors has been cal cu lated as to tals and in or ganic dust de - Ta ble 1 Min eral com po si tion, con cen tra tion and av er age 18 O val ues of in or ganic par ti cles in soil Sam ple name Soil sam ple near pas sive col lec tors In or ganic mat ter of soil [%] Min eral com po si tion of soil (XRD) WR 1 14.0 97.67 quartz, microcline WR 2 13.2 98.53 quartz, microcline, al bite WR 3 13.4 96.39 quartz, al bite WR 4 13.8 95.91 quartz, microcline WR 5 15.7 99.12 quartz, microcline WR 6 12.5 99.09 quartz, al bite WR 7 16.0 97.76 quartz, microcline WR 8 9.3 96.78 quartz, microcline, mus co vite WR 9 12.1 97.91 quartz, al bite WR 10 15.4 97.47 quartz, microcline, al bite WR 11 15.5 96.78 quartz, microcline, al bite WR 12 13.0 98.05 quartz, microcline MIN 9.3 95.91 MAX 16.0 99.12 AVERAGE 13.6 97.62 Anthropogenic in or ganic sources of SIAP Or i gin of sam ple Non-mag netic frac tion of in dus - trial dust from heat and power sta tion Wroc³aw in Wroc³aw Mag netic frac tion of in dus trial dust from heat and power sta tion Wroc³aw in Wroc³aw Non-mag netic frac tion of in dus - trial ash from heat and power sta - tion Czechnica in Siechnica 15.6 16.1 Ash from lo cal home heater 7.4 Plas ter from build ings cover n.a. not ana lysed Min eral com po si tion and av er age 18 O val ues of anthropogenic po ten tial sources of SIAP Min eral com po si tion of mat ter (XRD) quartz, mullite, graph ite, gyp sum maghemite, chro - mite, he ma tite 13.4 quartz, mullite n.a. Ta ble 2 quartz, cal cite, portlandite, anhydrite quartz, cal cite, gyp - sum, anorthoclase Fig. 2. Re la tions be tween de po si tion of to tal and in or ganic dust in Wroc³aw in the pe riod 20.11.2003 25.05.2005 position [mg/m 2 /day] for all the dust sam ples col lected dur ing the en tire study pe riod from all the pas sive col lec tors. The de - po si tion of the to tal dust var ied from 4.53 to 195.76 mg/m 2 /day (Fig. 2) with a min i mum value in Jan u ary 2004 and a max i mum value in July 2004; the av er age value for each sam pling pe riod var ied from 18.56 to 86.85 mg/m 2 /day. The de po si tion of in or ganic dust var ied from 1.20 to 135.08 mg/m 2 /day (Fig. 2) with a min i mum value in De cem ber 2003 and a max i mum value in Au gust 2004; the av er age for each sam pling pe riod var ied from 10.29 to 55.89 mg/m 2 /day. A positive correlation (R 2 = 0.78, n = 97, p <0.05) be tween to tal and in or ganic dust de po si tion has been ob served (Fig. 2). In Figure 2 the sam ples are di vided into 2 groups: veg e ta tive sea - son (rep re sent ing pe ri ods from late spring to early au tumn) and non-vegetative season (representing periods from late autumn to early spring). The con cen tra tion of in or ganic par ti cles in soils var ies from 95.91 to 99.12% (Table 1), whereas their 18 O val ues vary from 9.3 to 16.0 (Table 1). The mass of the par ti cles col lected us ing the pas sive col lec tors has been calculated as totals and inorganic dust deposition [mg/m 2 /day] for all the dust sam ples col lected dur ing the en tire study pe - riod from all the pas sive col lec tors. The de po si tion of the to tal dust var ied from 4.53 to 195.76 mg/m 2 /day (Fig. 2) with a min i mum value in Jan u ary 2004 and a max i mum value in July 2004; the av er age value for each sam pling pe riod var ied from 18.56 to 86.85 mg/m 2 /day. The deposition of inorganic dust var ied from 1.20 to 135.08 mg/m 2 /day (Fig. 2) with a min i - mum value in De cem ber 2003 and a max i mum value in Au - gust 2004; the av er age for each sam pling pe riod var ied from 10.29 to 55.89 mg/m 2 /day. A positive correlation (R 2 = 0.78, n = 97, p <0.05) be tween to tal and in or ganic dust de po si tion has been ob served (Fig. 2). In Figure 2 the sam ples are di - vided into 2 groups: vegetative season (representing periods from late spring to early au tumn) and non-veg e ta tive sea son

Mineralogical and oxygen isotope composition of inorganic dust-fall in Wroc³aw (SW Poland) urban area test of a new monitoring tool 75 Fig. 3. Spa tial dis tri bu tion of 18 O val ues of soil min er als next to the 12 pas sive col lec tors in Wroc³aw (back ground: layer of anthropogenic soil in Wroc³aw) (rep re sent ing pe ri ods from late au tumn to early spring). The spatial distribution of isotope signatures in soil inorganic parti cles next to the 12 pas sive col lec tors in Wroc³aw is shown graphically in Figure 3. The geochemical and mineralogical data of inorganic phases of the po ten tial anthropogenic sources of dust col lected in Wroc³aw are shown in Table 2. Their 18 O val ues (Table 2) vary from 7.4 (ash from lo cal heat ers) to 16.1 (mag netic fraction of industrial dust). The geochemical and mineralogical data of inorganic phases of dust gath ered us ing all 12 pas sive col lec tors in pe riod 5 (20.07.2004 23.09.2004) rep re sent ing sum mer and pe riod 7 (22.11.2004 26.01.2005) rep re sent ing win ter are shown in Ta - ble 3. The 18 O val ues of in or ganic par ti cles in sum mer vary from 10.9 to 18.8 and in win ter from 8.6 to 21.8 (Table 3). Ta ble 3 Min eral com po si tion and av er age 18 O val ues of SIAP from Wroc³aw dur ing two pe ri ods: period 5 (20.07.2004 23.09.2004) rep re sent ing sum mer (veg e ta tive) par ti cles, while pe riod 7 (22.11.2004 26.01.2005) re port ing win ter (heat ing) par ti cles Col lec tor name Pe riod 5 (sum mer) (20.07.2004 23.09.2004) Solid In or ganic At mo spheric Par ti cles (SIAP) from 12 pas sive col lec tors Min eral com po si tion of SIAP (XRD) SIAP in to tal par ti cles fall [%] Pe riod 7 (win ter) (22.11.2004 26.01.2005) Min eral com po si tion of SIAP (XRD) SIAP in to tal par ti cles fall [%] WR 1 18.8 n.a. 62.40 19.3 quartz, microcline, mus co vite, he ma tite 98.12 WR 2 14,0 n.a. 40.63 19.1 quartz, al bite, illite 84.03 WR 3 16.8 n.a. 84.81 19.1 quartz, al bite, mus co vite n.a. WR 4 12.7 n.a. 86.50 18.2 quartz, al bite, mus co vite 91.17 WR 5 10.9 n.a. n.a. n.a. quartz, microcline, mus co vite 95.38 WR 6 18.4 n.a. 86.87 17.3 quartz, al bite, illite, he ma tite 94.25 WR 7 18.1 n.a. 58.09 18.8 quartz, microcline, al bite, mus co vite 86.69 WR 8 16.5 n.a. 53.50 n.a. n.a. n.a. WR 9 n.a. n.a. 45.76 14.3 quartz, microcline, illite 70.42 WR 10 14.9 n.a. 68.62 18.6 quartz, microcline, al bite, mus co vite 88.38 WR 11 16.7 n.a. 56.25 21.8 quartz, microcline, al bite, mus co vite 91.26 WR 12 n.a. n.a. 64.32 8.6 quartz, microcline, mus co vite 79.14 MIN 10.9 40.63 8.6 70.42 MAX 18.8 86.87 21.8 98.12 AVERAGE 15.8 64.34 17.6 87.88 Ex pla na tions as in Ta ble 2

76 Maciej Górka, Mariusz-Orion Jêdrysek, Dominika Lewicka-Szczebak and Janusz Krajniak Ta ble 4 Min eral com po si tion and av er age 18 O val ues of SIAP from Wroc³aw in 9 pe ri ods (from 20.11.2003 25.05.2005) from pas sive col lec tor WR 9 Pe riod Solid In or ganic At mo spheric Par ti cles (SIAP) from pas sive col lec tor WR9 Min eral com po si tion of SIAP (XRD) 20.11.2003 13.01.2004 n.a. quartz, mus co vite 05.01.2004 15.03.2004 14.1 quartz 11.03.2004 19.05.2004 15.9 quartz, microcline, mus co vite 17.05.2004 22.07.2004 18.2 quartz, al bite, mus co vite 20.07.2004 23.09.2004 n.a. quartz, al bite, microcline, mus co vite 21.09.2004 24.11.2004 n.a. quartz 22.11.2004 26.01.2005 14.3 quartz, microcline, illite 24.01.2005 24.03.2005 14.3 quartz, mus co vite, microcline 23.03.2005 25.05.2005 14.1 quartz, al bite, mus co vite MIN 14.1 MAX 18.2 AVERAGE 15.1 Ex pla na tions as in Ta ble 2 Fig. 5. Re la tion of iso to pic com po si tion to amount of in or ganic dust de po si tion (men tion: for all sites pe ri ods 5 and 7) The geochemical and mineralogical data of inorganic phases of dust gath ered by col lec tor WR9 dur ing the en tire study pe riod (20.11.2003 25.05.2005) are shown in Table 4. The 18 O val ues of in or ganic par ti cles vary from 14.1 to 18.2 (Table 4). Figure 4 shows the 18 O values of inorganic atmospheric particles collected in Wroc³aw and all the as sumed nat u ral and anthropogenic sources. The re la tion be tween the iso tope ra tios and amount of in or ganic dust de po si tion is shown in Figure 5. The meteorological data for the study period indicate that the predominant wind directions in Wroc³aw are south-west and north-east, and ad di tion ally south-east (ex cept in sum mer). Winds in Wroc³aw are typ i cally of low speed (lower than 3 ms 1 ). However, direct comparison of geochemical and meteo ro log i cal data is not pos si ble due to dif fer ences in the spa tial localisation of geochemical sampling points (spatial data) and of meteorological monitoring stations (single point data). DISCUSSION Fig. 4. 18 O val ues of SIAP col lected in Wroc³aw and their po ten tial nat u ral (soil or i gin) and anthropogenic (in dus trial and lo cal heater or i gin) sources Seasonal variations in total dust concentration (organic and in or ganic) as well as in the con cen tra tion of in or ganic dust phases have been ob served. Dur ing the veg e ta tive sea son (from late spring to early au tumn) de po si tion of to tal dust and in or - ganic phases of dust in Wroc³aw is higher than in the heat ing (winter) season (Fig. 2). A sim i lar pat tern was ob served by Norra and Stüben (2004) in Karlsruhe, Ger many. The larger amount of to tal dust and in or ganic dust phases dur ing the veg e - ta tive sea son are due to eas ier de fla tion pro cesses (Norra and Stüben, 2004; Górka and Jêdrysek, 2008). Dur ing the heat ing sea son the frozen and snow-cov ered soil is more re sis tant to de - fla tion, hence the lower amount of de flated par ti cles, both in or - ganic and or ganic. On the other hand, the amount of to tal and

Mineralogical and oxygen isotope composition of inorganic dust-fall in Wroc³aw (SW Poland) urban area test of a new monitoring tool 77 or ganic dust phases is con trolled by the higher con cen tra tion of organic matter in the atmosphere during the vegetative season (pol len, frag ments of plants, in sects, etc.; Norra and Stüben, 2004; Górka and Jêdrysek, 2008). There fore, dur ing heat ing sea sons we ob served lower de - po si tion of to tal dust and strong cor re la tion (R 2 = 0.86) with in - or ganic phases of dust (Fig. 2), which is caused by lower con - centrations of atmospheric organic particles and lower local deflation. Consequently, SIAP in heat ing sea son orig i nate mainly from anthropogenic sources or from long-trans port pro cesses (i.e. de flated in other re gions). Dur ing veg e ta tive sea sons the de po si tion of to tal dust is sig nif i cantly higher and we noted a lower correlation (R 2 = 0.72) with in or ganic phases of dust (Fig. 2) than in heat ing sea sons. Dur ing veg e ta tive sea sons, the higher to tal dust de po si tion is prob a bly caused by higher amounts of the or ganic par ti cles and higher lo cal de fla tion. Consequently, SIAP in vegetative season originate mainly from lo cal de fla tion, as well as from anthropogenic sources or from long-trans port pro cesses. The wide dis per sion of veg e ta - tive sea son sam ples from pure in or ganic mat ter line re ported on Figure 2 is caused by higher con cen tra tions of or ganic mat - ter in the atmosphere during the vegetative season influencing the pro por tional amount of SIAP in to tal de pos ited dust. We sup posed that one of the ma jor nat u ral sources of col - lected at mo spheric dust could be rep re sented by par ti cles de - flated in near est neigh bour hood of col lec tors and trans ported over short distances. The mineralogical and oxygen isotopic composition of analysed soils reported in Table 1 is typ i cal of temperate climate soils (Jackson, 1981; Mizota et al., 1992; Norra et al., 2006). The spa tial dis tri bu tion of 18 O val ues from whole inorganic soil matter demonstrate good graphical correlation with anthropogenically de graded soils (Fig. 3). An 18 O enrichment is observed in Wroc³aw ar eas with anthropogenic soils ( 18 O >15 ), when com pared to ar eas with out anthropogenic soils ( 18 O 13 ; Fig. 3). In our opin ion, pos - sible explanations for these values are: (1) significant amounts of rub ble (ther mally treated build ing ma te ri als) in soils char ac - ter ised by higher 18 O values or (2) differences in mineralogical composition between anthropogenic and natural soils. The range of 18 O val ues ob tained for the cho sen hy po thet i - cal anthropogenic sources of at mo spheric in or ganic par ti cles was rather sur pris ing. In spite of the ex is tence of mullite (a min - eral formed at high tem per a ture) in non-mag netic phases of in - dus trial dust, the high est 18 O value (about 16 ) is lower than ex pected if iso to pic ex change with air ox y gen (23.5 ) is as - sumed. We sup posed that sed i ment (ig ne ous or i gin) quartz in coal will get en riched in 18 O as it is burned due to ex change with ox y gen in air re sult ing in very high 18 O val ues of gen er - ated dust. But the 18 O val ues ob tained sug gest that the hy poth - e sis of to tal ex change of ox y gen iso topes dur ing high tem per a - ture com bus tion must be re jected. How ever, when com par ing the 18 O val ues of high emis sion (mag netic and non-mag netic in dus trial dust) and low emis sion (home heater ash) dust sam - ples, significant differences were observed ( 18 O about 15 and 7, respectively, Table 2). The ob served en rich ment in 18 O of high emis sion sam ples may be a re sult of dis tinct com bus tion tem per a tures of both pro cesses. Pos si bly the ex change may oc - cur only par tially in the very thin layer of quartz grains (Trimaille and Ganem, 1997; Fielitz et al., 2003) and the mag - ni tude of the ex change layer de pends on the com bus tion tem - per a ture: the higher the tem per a ture, the larger the layer of ex - change and the higher the 18 O value. But the dif fer ence in iso - to pic com po si tion of high and low emis sion sam ples can be also caused by the different mineralogical composition of dust formed in these com bus tion pro cesses (Table 2). Thus, we in fer that the dust-hosted sil i cate min er als ei ther do not ex change ox - ygen isotopes with atmospheric oxygen during burning (Brill, 1970; Henderson et al., 2005; Silvestri et al., 2010) or the ex - change oc curs in a very thin sur face layer (Trimaille and Ganem, 1997; Fielitz et al., 2003). Probably, the experimentally confirmed enrichment in 18 O (Burkhard, 2001) does not oc cur in typ i cal burn ing pro cesses (heat and power sta tion as well as home heater coal burn ing) due to in suf fi cient tem per a - tures of the combustion process or insufficient combustion time to allow complete isotopic exchange. In the experiment mentioned above (Burkhard, 2001) 18 O en rich ment has been ob - served only af ter melt ing pro cesses at a tem per a ture of 1250 C. Such con di tions do not oc cur in home heater burn ing pro - cesses, and may oc cur only par tially dur ing in dus trial burn ing, hence the ob served en rich ment is lower than ini tially ex pected. The 18 O val ues ob tained for ae rial dust sam ples (Table 3) have shown a wide range from 10.9 to 18.8 for the sum mer pe riod (20.07.2004 23.09.2004) and from 8.6 to 21.8 for the win ter pe riod (22.11.2004 26.01.2005). Com par ing the av er - age 18 O val ues ob tained for the sum mer pe riod (15.8 ) and the win ter pe riod (17.6 ; Table 3) with the ear lier con clu sions concerning the deposition of total and inorganic particles in veg e ta tive and heat ing sea sons it can be con cluded that the ob - served en rich ment of the SIAP in 18 O in win ter is caused by in - creased amounts of anthropogenically changed par ti cles in the to tal pool of SIAP generated in situ or de rived from long dis - tance trans port. Con versely, the en rich ment of SIAP in 18 O in sum mer is lower than in the win ter pe riod due to a larger amount of soil originated particles (average 13.6, Table 1) in the to tal SIAP and a lower in put of anthropogenically changed particles generated in situ or de rived from long dis tance trans - port. Unfortunately, for the final isotopic mass balance calculation, the ma jor ity of the 18 O data ob tained from the pas sive col lec tors are higher than those of the pro posed nat u ral and anthropogenic sources for Wroc³aw dust (Fig. 4 and Ta - bles 3, 4). But when ana lys ing the re la tion of iso tope com po si - tion and amount of SIAP in the dust sam ples col lected (Fig. 5) a dominant source of SIAP can be indentified. This source iso to - pic composition differs from the soil inorganic particles showing higher 18 O val ues (about 18 ). The 18 O val ues ob tained for quartz dust mea sured in the north ern hemi sphere (Jack son, 1981) for long-range par ti cles var ies from 17 to 21. There - fore, a pos si ble ex pla na tion is that the most of in or ganic par ti - cles col lected as dust-fall in Wroc³aw orig i nates from long-dis - tance trans port rather than from lo cally de flated soil par ti cles. In this case, a part of the in or ganic dust phase de pos ited in Wroc³aw is de rived from out side of the city. The south and south-west predominant wind direction indicate the possible sources for this ex ter nal dust in put: deflation of particles from agricultural fields surrounding Wroc³aw;

78 Maciej Górka, Mariusz-Orion Jêdrysek, Dominika Lewicka-Szczebak and Janusz Krajniak mineral phases originating from the Sudety Moun tains sit u ated about 80 100 km SW from Wroc³aw or from quar ries local ised about 40 km S and SW of Wroc³aw; production of inorganic dust by industrial centres (such as the cop per works sit u ated about 70 km W from Wroc³aw). The 1.5 year long (9 periods) mineralogical and oxygen iso to pic re cord for a pas sive col lec tor (WR 9 lo cated 1 km north ward from heat and power sta tion Wroc³aw ) is shown in Table 4. The mineralogical composition of these samples is very sim i lar to those col lected dur ing sum mer and win ter pe ri - ods (Table 3) and from the near est soil (Table 1). The 18 O val - ues scat ter around 14, ex clud ing two pe ri ods (11.03.2004 19.05.2004 and 17.05.2004 22.07.2004), when an 18 O-enrichment appears. One of the ma jor goals of this study was to as sess the in put of the anthropogenic at mo spheric par ti cles in the to tal mass of dust deposited in Wroc³aw. The range of 18 O val ues ob tained for SIAP, soil and hy po thet i cal anthropogenic sources do not ful fil the con di tions of equa tion 1. We did not find any hy po thet i cal sources (nat u ral or anthropogenic) with high enough 18 O to ex - plain all the SIAP deposited in Wroc³aw. There fore, in this case, cal cu la tion of the amount of anthropogenic par ti cles us ing iso to - pic mass bal ance equa tions 2 and 3 is not pos si ble. CONCLUSIONS The larger amount of to tal dust and in or ganic dust phases ob - served dur ing the veg e ta tion pe riod are due to eas ier de fla tion pro cesses. Dur ing the heat ing pe riod the frozen and snow-cov - ered soil is more re sis tant to de fla tion, hence the lower amount of de flated par ti cles, as in or ganic as well as or ganic. In our opin ion, the at mo spheric dust in the heat ing sea son orig i nates mainly from anthropogenic sources or from long dis tance trans port pro - cesses, whereas in the veg e ta tive sea son it orig i nates mainly from lo cal de fla tion, as well as from anthropogenic sources or from long dis tance trans port pro cesses. The mineralogical composition of SIAP deposited in Wroc³aw is very sim i lar to the soil near est the pas sive col lec tor location. However, the 18 O val ues of SIAP and soil ob tained show dif fer ent ranges and, as a con se quence, ex clude lo cal soil as a ma jor po ten tial nat u ral source of SIAP. The 18 O values obtained for hypothetical anthropogenic sources (low and high emis sion sources) are not en riched in 18 O as would be ex pected in the case of iso to pe ex change pro cesses with atmospheric oxygen. Therefore, the oxygen isotope exchange be tween min er als and ox y gen in air prob a bly does not occur in typical combustion process (representing as high as well as low emis sions). The lack of known sources en riched in 18 O (higher than or equal to SIAP) makes it im pos si ble to con struct an iso to pic mass bal ance equa tion and to cal cu late the amount of anthropogenic par ti cles in the to tal dust. This sug gests the dom i nance of other sources of in or ganic dust than orig i nally as sumed. Mineralogical and geochemical data indicate that the major source (nat u ral or anthropogenic) of in or ganic dust de pos ited probably lies outside Wroc³aw. The predominant south-west wind direction may indicate agricultural areas, quarries, the Sudety Moun tains, or in dus trial cen tres as sources of SIAP in Wroc³aw. We also do not ex clude long-dis tance dust trans port as an ad di tional source of dust de pos ited in Wroc³aw. Acknowledgements. 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