INFANCYANDCHILDHOODINANCIENTGREEKPHILOSOPHY MalcolmSchofield TheancientGreeksaren tusuallythoughttohavemuchofinteresttotellus aboutchildhoodorinfancy.butthisisinfactasubjectonwhichgreek philosophysaysquitealot,whoseattractionsishallbehopingtorecommendto youinthislecture. 1 Forphilosophers someofthemoresignificantofthem,at anyrate childhoodandinfancyrepresentparadigmsgoodtothinkwithabouta wholerangeofimportanttopics.idon twanttoattemptanysortofsurveyof everythingtheysaidaboutinfancyoraboutchildhood.insteadishalllookat thingsaboutchildrenandinfantsthat,oncetheynoticedthem,gottheir philosophicaladrenalinflowing.whatiamgoingtobehighlightingaresomeof thedifferentparadigmaticrolestheyplayintheirargumentsandtheories.as Greekphilosopherssawit,infantsandchildrenhaveahuge perhapssurprising amounttoteachus. Forthoseofyouwhowouldlikearoadmap,thelecturewillexhibitring composition.weshallstartwithplatoandheraclitus,andreturntothematthe endafteragoodthinkabouttheepicureansandstoics.tobeginwiththefocus willbechildhood,theninhellenisticphilosophyinfancy,whileinoursecond encounterwithplatowewillfindapreoccupationwithbothinfancyand childhood,beforeweendupwithalastlookatchildhoodinheraclitus.the discussionwillproceedatafairlysmart(butihopeacceptable)pace.myaimhas beentopresentinabriefspacesomeintriguingmaterial ratherthantodwell onhowmuchtruththeremightbeinsomeofit:somethingwecanallmakeour ownmindsupabout. 1.Insightandenquiry OneofthemostfamouspassagesinallGreekphilosophicalwritingcomesin Plato sdialoguemeno,atthepointwheremenoquestionssomethingsocrates hasjustproposedaboutenquiryandlearning.it sallrecollection,ἀνάμνησις, Socrateshassaid.ReasonablyenoughMenoaskshimtoexplainwhathemeans bythisstrangeclaim:thatlearningisnotwhatwedo whatwecall learning is actuallyrecollection.wethengetthisstretchofdialogue(82a b): {ΣΩ.}Ἀλλ ἔστιμὲνοὐῥᾴδιον,ὅμωςδὲἐθέλωπροθυμηθῆναισοῦἕνεκα. ἀλλάμοιπροσκάλεσοντῶνπολλῶνἀκολούθωντουτωνὶτῶνσαυτοῦἕνα, ὅντιναβούλει,ἵναἐντούτῳσοιἐπιδείξωμαι. {ΜΕΝ.}Πάνυγε.δεῦροπρόσελθε. {ΣΩ.}Ἕλληνμένἐστικαὶἑλληνίζει; {ΜΕΝ.}Πάνυγεσφόδρα,οἰκογενήςγε. {ΣΩ.}Πρόσεχεδὴτὸννοῦνὁπότερ ἄνσοιφαίνηται,ἢἀναμιμνῃσκόμενοςἢ μανθάνωνπαρ ἐμοῦ. {ΜΕΝ.}Ἀλλὰπροσέξω. {ΣΩ.}Εἰπὲδήμοι,ὦπαῖ,γιγνώσκειςτετράγωνονχωρίονὅτιτοιοῦτόν ἐστιν; 1PresidentialLecture,SocietyforthePromotionofHellenicStudies,11June2011.
2 {ΠΑΙ.}Ἔγωγε. Soc.Well,itisn teasy,buti mwillingtotryforyoursake.callformeoneof yourmanyattendantshere,whicheveryoulike,sothaticanperformthe demonstrationonhimforyou. Men.Certainly.Comehere. Soc.IsheaGreek,anddoeshespeakGreek? Men.Yes,indeed;he shome bred. Soc.Thenpayattentionastowhichseemstoyoutobetrueofhim,eitherthat heisrecollectingorthatheislearningfromme. Men.Yes,Iwill. Soc.Tellme,then,boy,areyouawarethatasquarefigureislikethis? BoyIam. Therefollowsthefamousproofthat,thoughtheboyhasneverbeentaughtany geometry(85d e),whenquestionedheisabletomakeoutforhimselfthe answertoachallenginggeometricalproblem.aftersomefailedattempts,he succeedsinspecifyingthelengthofthelinewhichwill,whensquared,generatea figuretwicetheareaofagivensquare,namelythelinewhichtheexperts(οἷ σοφιστάι)callthediagonaloftheoriginalgivenfigure.ifhecouldgetthesame answerwhenquestionedmanytimesandinmanyways,socratescomments,he willhaveknowledge:aknowledgehewillhaverecoveredfromhimself and recoveringknowledgeonehaswithinoneselfissurelyrecollectingit. Buthowlonghasthatknowledgebeenlockedupwithintheboy, forgottenbutwakenedbyquestioning?well,menocanvouchthathe snotbeen taughtitinhispresentlife.so,socratessuggests,itlooksasthoughtruthabout realityisalwaysthereinthesoul:whichmustaccordinglybeimmortal,preexistingourhumanlifeandgoingonafterit.andfromthatitisonlyashortstep towordsworth: Ourbirthisbutasleepandaforgetting: TheSoulthatriseswithus,ourlife sstar, Hathhadelsewhereitssetting, Andcomethfromafar: Notinentireforgetfulness, Andnotinutternakedness, Buttrailingcloudsofglorydowecome FromGod,whoisourhome: Heavenliesaboutusinourinfancy! ButbacktotheMeno,whereinthecool,drymannerofaSocratic conversation,platoisattemptingsomethingclosetoargumentativemelodrama: ademonstrationthattheinnateresourcesofthemindaresuchthatamerechild canwithoutinstructionperformapieceofmathematicalthinkingofsome sophistication,which iftheperformancecanberepeatedsuccessfullyunder variedconditions willconstitutetherecoveryoflatentknowledgeburiedinthe immortalsoul.ofcourse,philosophicalcriticsfindplentytoqueryinthispieceof argumentation,althoughitsbasicanti empiricistthrusthasinrecentdecades cometolooklikesomesortofanticipationofnoamchomsky stheoryofhuman
3 languageacquisition.thegreekscholarcanasksomequestionsaboutittoo,as didthelatelamentedbobsharplesinhisfinearis&phillipseditionofthe dialogue(1985),fromwhichiexcerptedthetranslationofthepassageijust quoted.bobpointedoutthatwhensocratessays: Tellmethen,boy,areyou awarethatasquarefigureislikethis?,wecan tbesurethat boy (παῖ)means boy: thegreeks,likethesouthafricans hecomments, calledslaves boy whatevertheirage ;andsocrateshasinvitedmenotopickanyofhisattendants tobetheguinea pig.maybethemessageisnotsomuchthatamerechildcan recoverinnateknowledge,butthatamereuntutoredslavecandoit.atthesame time,asbobobserved: Theyoungertheslave,themorestrikingtheexperiment becomes. 2 Anotherimageofthechild scognitivepowers,insomewaysultimately notthatdifferent,isconveyedbytheearliestgreekthinkerweknowtohave exploitedtheideaofchildhoodforphilosophicalpurposes.quiteanumberofthe sayingsofheraclitusplaywiththeidea.let sstartwithfr.79: ἀ ν ὴ ρ ν ή π ι ο ς ἤ κ ο υ σ ε π ρ ὸ ς δ α ί μ ο ν ο ς ὅ κ ω σ π ε ρ π α ῖ ς π ρ ὸ ς ἀ ν δ ρ ό ς. Maniscalledinfantilebydivinity,justasisthechildbythegrownman. Thegulfbetweendivineunderstandingandtheincomprehensionthatinhumans atlargepassesforthoughtisoneofheraclitus favouritethemes.thechild man comparisongiveshimyetonemorewayofmakingthepoint.wethinkchildren aremuchofthetimeinfantile,silly,childish.butfromthedivineperspective that showwehumanadultsgenerallylook.andnoticethatheraclitusdoesnot endorsetheviewthatchildrenarechildish.thisbecomessignificantwhenin othersayingshedeployscomparisonwiththechildtotwisttheknifestilldeeper intoourself esteem.hereisfr.117: ἀ ν ὴ ρ ὁ κ ό τ α ν μ ε θ υ σ θ ῆ ι, ἄ γ ε τ α ι ὑ π ὸ π α ι δ ὸ ς ἀ ν ή β ο υ σ φ α λ λ ό μ ε ν ο ς, ο ὐ κ ἐ π α ΐ ω ν ὅ κ η β α ί ν ε ι, ὑ γ ρ ὴ ν τ ὴ ν ψ υ χ ὴ ν ἔ χ ω ν. Amanwhenheisdrunkisguidedbyabeardlessboy:stumbling,notknowing whereheisstepping,withhissouldrenched. Thechildcanactuallybemoresensible,morealert,moreincontrolthanamanin thatcondition andthepointisreinforcedbythesprightlinessoftheregular hexameterrhythmofἄ γ ε τ α ι ὑ π ὸ π α ι δ ὸ ς ἀ ν ή β ο υ followedbythe unmetricaltotteringofσ φ α λ λ ό μ ε ν ο ς. Worsestill,peopledon thavetobe insensiblewithdrinktomisstheobvious,eventhoughchildrenhavenoproblem withperceivingit.fr.56instanceshomerhimselfasacaseinpoint: ἐ ξ η π ά τ η ν τ α ι οἱἄ ν θ ρ ω π ο ι π ρ ὸ ς τ ὴ ν γ ν ῶ σ ι ν τ ῶ ν φ α ν ε ρ ῶ ν π α ρ α π λ η σ ί ω ς Ὁ μ ή ρ ω ι, ὃ ς ἐ γ έ ν ε τ ο τ ῶ ν 2R.W.Sharples,Plato:Meno,editedwithtranslationandnotes.Warminster:Aris& Phillips,1985.
4 Ἑ λ λ ή ν ω ν σ ο φ ώ τ ε ρ ο ς π ά ν τ ω ν. ἐ κ ε ῖ ν ό ν τ ε γ ὰ ρ π α ῖ δ ε ς φ θ ε ῖ ρ α ς κ α τ α κ τ ε ί ν ο ν τ ε ς ἐ ξ η π ά τ η σ α ν ε ἰ π ό ν τ ε ς ὅ σ α ε ἴ δ ο μ ε ν κ α ὶ ἐ λ ά β ο μ ε ν, τ α ῦ τ α ἀ π ο λ ε ί π ο μ ε ν, ὅ σ α δ ὲ ο ὔ τ ε ε ἴ δ ο μ ε ν ο ὔ τ ἐ λ ά β ο μ ε ν, τ α ῦ τ α φ έ ρ ο μ ε ν. Peoplearethoroughlydeceivedwhenitcomestorecognitionofwhatis obvious likehomer,whohadprovedwiserthanallthegreeks.foritwas himthatboyswhowerekillinglicethoroughlydeceived,whentheysaid: Whatweseeandcatch,weleavebehind;whatweneitherseenorcatch,we carryaway. Homerwasaparagonofwisdom.Buthecouldnotworkoutariddledevisedby childrenwhoweremakingitobviouswhattheanswermustbebywhatthey weredoinginfrontofhisverynose.hecouldn tconnectlanguagewith behaviourthewaytheycould.onceagaintheintelligenceofchildrenshowsup thestupidityofadults:theiralertnessfunctionsasyardstickagainstwhichwe canmeasurehumanfolly. Childhoodisnowheremoreambitiouslycharacterizedthaninwhat CharlesKahn,inhiseditionandcommentary,rightlydescribesasthe most enigmaticofheracliteanriddles. 3 ThisisFr.52: α ἰ ὼ ν π α ῖ ς ἐ σ τ ι π α ί ζ ω ν, π ε σ σ ε ύ ω ν π α ι δ ὸ ς ἡ β α σ ι λ η ί η. Alifetimeisachildplaying,movingthepieces.Achild sisthekingship. AttheendofthislectureIshallhaveashotatdispellingsomeofthebafflement Fr.52induces.Forthemomentletusnoticesomethingthatisclearaboutit: somethingwhichfurtherdevelopsthepictureofheraclitus thinkingabout childhoodthathasbeenemerging.childhoodisnowseennotjustasunexpected benchmarkforwisdom,butassomehowthekeytoourwholeunderstandingof ourlives andofwhatcontrolsthepatterntheyexhibit. 2.Desireandwhatmotivatesit AtthispointIwanttofastforwardtotheHellenisticage,andtoaverydifferent kindofphilosophicalappealtothechild:whichconcentratesnotonchildren s intelligenceandinsight,butontheirbasicimpulses ontheirconative,nottheir cognitive,powers.theexplorationofhellenisticphilosophyhasbeenoneofthe greatprojectsinscholarshiponancientphilosophyoverthelast30oddyearsor so,andonewithwhichihavehadthegreatgoodfortunetobeassociated.ifone hadtopickasmallselectionofground breakingstudiesthathavehelpedto transformunderstandingofstoics,epicureansandtherest,highoneveryone s listwouldbeapaperbyanhonorarymemberofoursocietywhodiedearlyin 2010,theremarkableJacquesBrunschwig,entitled Thecradleargumentin 3C.H.Kahn,TheArtandThoughtofHeraclitus,aneditionofthefragmentswith translationandcommentary.cambridge:cambridgeuniversitypress,1979.p.227.
5 EpicureanismandStoicism,andpublished25yearsbeforeintheproceedings volumeofthethirdsymposiumhellenisticum. 4 Brunschwiglaunchedthepaperwithaquotationthatbeginstoexplain histitle.itcomesfromthefifthbookofcicero sdefinibus,incidentally remindingusthatmuchofourevidenceforthesegreekthinkersisactually availabletousonlyinlatin,andinthepresentcaseprimarilyinthedialoguesof DeFinibus.Thetextinquestionreadsasfollows(Fin.5.55): omnesveteresphilosophi,maximenostri,adincunabulaaccedunt,quodin pueritiafacillimesearbitanturnaturaevoluntatempossecognoscere. Alltheancientphilosophers,inparticularthoseofourschool[i.e.the Peripatetics],turntocradles,becauseitinchildhoodthattheythinktheycan mostreadilyrecognizethewillofnature. AsBrunschwigcomments,thisstatementisperfectlycorrectasasummaryof thebasicapproachtoethicsinhellenisticphilosophy: themoralistsofthe Hellenisticperiod,ofwhateverschool,madefrequentuseofwhatmightbe calledthecradleargument,thatis,aprocedurewhichconsistsfirstindescribing (orinclaimingtodescribe)thebehaviorandpsychologyofthechildinthecradle (usuallyinconjunctionwithyounganimals)andindrawing(orclaimingto draw),moreorlessdirectly,certainconclusionswhich,inonewayoranother, leadtotheformulationandjustificationofamoraldoctrine. 5 ItwasprobablyEpicuruswhowaspioneerinmakingappealtothe experienceofnewbornanimalsthefoundationstoneofhisethicalsystem,which ofcoursewasadistinctiveversionofhedonism.thisishowaccordingtocicero hearticulatedtheappeal(fin.1.30): omneanimalsimulatquenatumsitvoluptatemappetereeaquegaudereut summobono,doloremaspernariutsummummalumetquantumpossitase repellere;idquefacerenondumdepravatum,ipsanatureincorrupteatque integreiudicante. Everyanimalassoonasitisbornseekspleasureandenjoysitassupreme good;itshunspainassupremeevilandresistsitsofarasitisable.thisit doesbeingnotyetdepraved natureitselfdeliversthisverdict,untouchedby corruptionandwithintegrityintact.therefore(hesays[sc.epicurus])thereis noneedforreasoningorargumentationshowingwhypleasureshouldbe soughtandpainshouldbeavoided[sc.morethananythingelseshould]. Epicuruswentontodrawanimmediateconclusion,nodoubtmeanttosurprise andshock(ibid.): 4J.Brunschwig, ThecradleargumentinEpicureanismandStoicism,inTheNormsof Nature:StudiesinHellenisticEthics,ed.M.Schofield&G.Striker.Cambridge:Cambridge UniversityPress,1986.Pp.113 44. 5Ibid.p.113.
6 itaquenegatopusesserationenequedisputationequamobremvoluptas expetenda,fugiendusdolorest. Therefore(hesays[sc.Epicurus])thereisnoneedforreasoningor argumentationshowingwhypleasureshouldbesoughtandpainshouldbe avoided[sc.morethananythingelseshould]. ThesurpriseisthatEpicurusapparentlythinksthathecanmoveimmediately fromtheobservationaboutnewbornanimals,firsttohisprincipalthesisin ethics:pleasureshouldbesought,painshouldbeavoided;andsecond,tothe claimthattheobservationeliminatesanyneedactuallytoarguefortheposition. Howonearthcanheexpecttojumpallthewayfromnoticingsomethingabout infantsinthecradletofull blownethicalhedonism,andwithoutsupplyingany argumentationdesignedtobridgethegap? AsBrunschwigshowed,theanswercanbegatheredbyfocusingonthe finalcommentepicurusmakesaboutthepsychologicalattitudetopleasureand painrevealedbythebehaviorofthenewbornanimal.thatattituderepresents humanoranimalnature.anditcan tplausiblybemaintainedthatababyin armsgoesforpleasurebecauseitsnaturehasbeencorruptedbysocial influences byhypothesizingwhatnon moralistsmightbemoanas(toquote Brunschwigagain) therelentlessworkingsofawholeseriesofpervertingforces fromnursesandteacherstopoetsandplaywrights,takingturnstofosterataste forsensualindulgenceinthechild,intheadolescent,andfinallytheadult. Observationofthenewbornchildenablesuspreciselytoeliminatethe hypothesisofanysuchdistortion.itdoesn tprovideanargumentativebasisfor hedonism hedonismconsistsinbelievinganddoingwhatcomesnaturally, somethingthatwedon tneedtobearguedinto.whattheobservationdoes achieveissimply theinvalidationofanattempttoinvalidate thethesisthat hedonismtrulyiswhatnaturerecommendstous. 6 PhilosophersfromotherschoolsofcourserejectedtheEpicureans cradle argument.onelineofattackwastoobjectthattherewasafatalambiguityin theirposition.thepleasuretheinfantinarmsisafter,itwassaid,isapositive sensation;thepleasurevaluedbytheepicureansageissomethingquitedifferent freedomfrompainandanxiety(fin.2.31 2).Whatisofmoreinteresttous, however,isanotherlineofthought,whicheffectivelyagreeswithepicurusin takingitthatethicsneedstoappealtowhathappensinthecradle,butobjects thathehasmisidentifiedwhatthatcradleexperienceconsistsin.wefindcicero presentingthisobjectioninboththeanti EpicureanBook2andtheStoicBook3 ofdefinibus(fin.2.33,3.17),butsincewehaveaversionofitinagreeksource (DiogenesLaertius7.85 6),that stheonei llreproduce: Ὅδὲλέγουσίτινες,πρὸςἡδονὴνγίγνεσθαιτὴνπρώτηνὁρμὴντοῖςζῴοις, ψεῦδοςἀποφαίνουσιν.ἐπιγέννημαγάρφασιν,εἰἄραἔστιν,ἡδονὴνεἶναι ὅταναὐτὴκαθ αὑτὴνἡφύσιςἐπιζητήσασατὰἐναρμόζοντατῇσυστάσει ἀπολάβῃ ὃντρόπονἀφιλαρύνεταιτὰζῷακαὶθάλλειτὰφυτά. 6Ibid.p.121.
7 Asforwhatsomepeoplesay[sc.theEpicureans],viz.thatpleasureisthe objectofthefirstimpulsetheanimalshave,they[sc.thestoics]representthis asfalse.fortheysaythatpleasure(ifthereactuallyispleasure)isabyproduct,whicharisesonlywhennatureinandofitselfhassoughttheproper requirementsfortheanimal sconstitution.thisishowitcomesaboutthat animalsfrolicandplantsbloom. Inotherwords,if(anditisan if )thebabywhohastakenmilkfromitsmother s breastendsupgurglingcontentedly,thatisnotbecauseit spleasurethatitwas after,butbecauseitsnaturalimpulsewastoacquirethesustenanceit instinctivelyrecognizedtoberequiredinordertopreserveitsconstitution.the pleasureissomekindofspin offfromthesatisfactionofthat primarynatural impulsetoself preservation (D.L.7.85). TheStoicviewwasthatwhatmakesthattheprimaryimpulsemustbe somethingmorefundamentalstill:thenewbornanimal sattachmenttoitselfor identificationwithitselfanditsownconstitution whattheycalledοἰκείωσις somethingwhichinturnrequiresustopositfromtheverybeginningsomekind ofself awareness,howeverinchoateandindefinitethatmaybe(cic.fin.3.16;cf. Sen.Ep.121.10 13).ThustheStoicsseemtohavereasonedbackfromwhatthey tooktobethephenomenonofself preservingbehaviorcommontoallanimalsas soonastheyareborn,toitspsychologicalpreconditions:theimpulsetomaintain theirownconstitution,whichpresupposesanimpulsetoself love,which presupposesself awareness. Atthispointonemightsay:Iseethatifyoudecidethatababy s behaviourisinthefirstinstancetypicallyself preservingratherthanpleasureseeking,thenstoicοἰκείωσιςtheoryiswhatyoumightneedtoaccountforthe psychologyunderlyingthebehaviour.butdidtheyhaveanynon arbitrarybasis fordecidingtodescribethebehaviouralphenomenaintheirtermsratherthan thosepreferredinepicureanhedonism?chrysippus,themostimportantofall GreekStoics,evidentlythoughthehad.Heinvokedanoverallteleologyinthe realmofnatureatlarge,andonthatbasisofferedapieceofapriorireasoningas towhywemustsupposetheimpulsetoself attachmenttobenatural(d.l.7.85): οὔτεγὰρἀλλοτριῶσαιεἰκὸςἦναὐτὸ<αὑτῷ>τὸζῷον,οὔτεποιήσασαν αὐτό,μήτ ἀλλοτριῶσαιμήτ [οὐκ]οἰκειῶσαι.ἀπολείπεταιτοίνυνλέγειν συστησαμένηναὐτὸοἰκειῶσαιπρὸςἑαυτό. Forthey[sc.theStoics]thoughttherewasnolikelihoodinthealternatives: thatnaturealienatedtheanimalinitself,orthathavingmadeit,nature neitheralienatednotcreatedattachment.sotheonlyoptionremainingisto saythatinconstitutingtheanimalitgaveitattachmenttoitself. FortheStoics(quitedifferentlyfromtheEpicureans),itisbecomingplain, thecradleexperiencecanbeunderstoodonlywithintheframeworkofquitealot ofambitioustheory,includingatonelevelateleologicalunderstandingofthe workingsofnatureatlarge,andatanotherasophisticatedanalysisofthe psychologicalpreconditionsofanimalbehaviour.themoreambitiousthe theory,themoreproblemsitislikelytothrowup;andthesourcesgiveusquitea lotofevidenceaboutwhatinthecaseofstoicismthesewerefelttobein
8 antiquity.acrucialissuewasovertheethicalsignificanceofthehumaninfant s self preservingbehaviour seekingandfinding theproperrequirementsforthe animal sconstitution andinparticularitsrelationshiptovirtue,thestoics candidateforthesummumbonum:arelationshipwhichatfirstsightseemsmuch moremysteriousthantheepicureans invocationofcradleexperiencetosupport thethesisthatitispleasurethatisthesummumbonum.butishallfocus attentiononadifferentexampleofthecontroversiesthestoictheoryprovoked. Thiswasovertheboldclaimthateventhenewbornanimalalreadyhasselfawareness,somethingtheStoicsrepresentedasaninevitablepreconditionof οἰκείωσις. WehearofobjectionsraisedagainsttheStoics claimthateventhe youngestanimalshaveself awareness,bothasreportedbysenecaandina fascinatingsectionfromaworkbyhierocles(probablymid secondcenturyad) entitledtheelementsofethics.hierocles,perhapsnotahouseholdname,is preservedfragmentarilyonpapyrus,andisnowavailableinasplendidedition co editedin1992bya.a.long,anewlyappointedhonorarymemberofthe Society(2011). 7 TheobjectionknowntoSenecacomesacrossinhisaccountas rathercrass.how,itisasked(letter121.10),couldaninfantcrediblybe supposedtohaveanyunderstandingofitself,whenthatwouldinvolvea complexandsubtlegraspoftheἡγεμονικόν,theanimal spsychologicaland physiologicalcontrolcentre?wouldn tthatmeanturningallanimalsintoborn logicians?senecahasnodifficultyinpointingoutanignoratioelenchi.thestoics thesisisnotaboutphilosophicalknowledgeorunderstanding,butaboutbasic awareness:quidsitanimal,nescit;animalseessesentit(ibid.11: Whatananimal is,itdoesnotknow;thatitisitselfananimalissomethingitisawareof ).Orif wecancallitanunderstandingofitsownconstitution,thatunderstandingis crude,schematic,andvague(ibid.12). Hierocles,likeSenecaaStoic,forhispartbeginshistreatiseby announcingthathethinksthebeststartingpointforatreatmentoftheelements ofethicsistheλόγοςabouttheπρῶτονοἴκειονofananimal, thefirstthing recognizableasitsown (Elements1.1 2),justthepointfromwhichaccordingto DiogenesLaertiusChrysippusbeganhisworkOnGoals(περὶτελῶν)(D.L.7.85). Andinthisconnectionitisimportanttorecognize,hesays,thatassoonasitis borntheanimalisawareofitself(elements1.35 9).Thisisimportantnotleast becausesomepeopleobjecttotheidea.orrather,asheputsitengagingly,we hadbettersaysomethingtoremindourselvesofitstruth forthesakeofthose whoareratherslow(βραδυτέρων).actually,hegoesonatoncetosay,weneed toputanotherkindofargumentfirst,becausesomepeoplearesoslowandsofar removedfromunderstandingthingsthattheycan tbelievethatanimalshaveany self awarenessmoregenerally(i.e.notjustthattheyhaveitfrombirth).these peoplethinkperceptionorawareness(αἴσθησις)hasbeenbestowedbynature onanimalsforthepurposeofapprehendingexternalobjects,notalsoforselfapprehension(ibid.39 46). SowhatHieroclesgoesontodevelopisquiteacomplicatedlineof thought:firstanextensivesetofconsiderationswhichshowthatthegeneral 7G.Bastianini&A.A.Long,Hierocles:ElementaMoralia,editedwithItaliantranslation andcommentary,incorpusdeipapyrifilosoficigrecielatini,partei:autorinoti, Vol.1**.Firenze:LeoS.OlschkiEditore,1992.Pp.268 451.
9 phenomenonofanimalself awarenessdoesindeedexist,andonlythenadefence ofthemorespecificthesis,seeminglymuchmoredifficulttoestablish,that animalsperceivethemselvesassoonastheyareborn.muchofthefocusinthe firstpartoftheargumentisonanimals self consciousnessabouttheirown powersandlimitations,asinthefollowingsequence(ibid.2.20 7): Ταύτηικαὶταῦροςμέν,ὁπότεφράττοιτοπρὸςτὴνἐπιβουλήν,τάττειπρὸ παντὸςτοῦλοιποῦσώματοςτὰκέρατα χελώνηδὲσυναισθανομένητινὸς ἐπιθέσεωςτὴνκεφαλὴνκαὶτοὺςπόδαςτῶιὀστρακώδειμέρειἑαυτῆς ὑποστέλλει,τῶισκληρῶικαὶδυσμεταχειρίστωιτὰεὐάλωτα τὸδὲ παραπλήσιονποιεῖκαὶὁκοχλίαςκατειλούμενοςεἰςτὸκερατῶδες,ὁπότε κινδύνουσυναίσθοιτο. Thusthebull,whenhedefendshimselfagainstahostilemanoeuvre,linesup hishornsinfrontofthewholeoftherestofhisbody.thetortoise,whenheis awareofanattack,contractshisheadandhisfeetintohisshell,thepartsthat areeasytogetatintothepartthatishardanddifficulttodealwith. Somethingsimilarisdonebythesnail,whichcontractsitselfintoitsshell whenitisawareofdanger. Noticethat,althoughprovingthatananimal sbasicinstinctisforselfpreservationisn tthemainpointhere,itistheself awarenessrevealedinsuch behaviourthathieroclesproducesinevidence. Thesecondphaseoftheargumentationdividesintotwo:proofthat animalsperceivethemselvescontinuously,andthenatlasttheclinchertowhich thewholesequenceofreasoninghasbeenmoving argumentthattheydoso fromtheverymomentofbirth.hieroclesarguesforcontinuousself awareness principallybyappealtotheideathatthesoulpermeatesthebody,andtherefore anythingthataffectsthebodymustalsoaffectthesoul.therelevanceofthat quicklyemerges.iftheanimalwereevertoloseallself awareness,itwouldhave tobeinsleep.butthereisplentyofevidencethatweareawareofourselves whileasleep:ifpartsofourbodiesgetexposedtothecold,wedragthe bedclothesoverthem;thewine loverkeepsatightgriponthebottle,themiser onhispurse;andsoon. Forthefinaldemonstrationofself awarenessfromthemomentofbirth, wemighthavebeenhopingforsimilarbitsofpurportedempiricalevidence, drawnfromobservationofbabiesandothernewlybornanimals.insteaditnow becomesclearwhyhieroclesinvestedsomucheffortintothemoregeneral considerationshehasbeenpresentingsofar.thereasonsheoffersforbelieving theclaimaboutnewlybornanimalsareallindirect:inferencesofonesortor anotherfromthecontinuityofperception.forexample,ifself perceptionis continuousthroughlife,thatcontinuitymustincludethefirstmoment;forno subsequentmomentlooksabetterbeginningpoint,especiallysincethecapacity forperceptionistherefromthefirstmoment.howeverhierocles prize argument( veryfine,unanswerable(πάνυκαλὴνκαὶἀναντίλεκτον),hecallsit: ibid.5.61)consistsinreasoningquitesimplythatperceptionofexternalthings which,recall,theoriginalreallyslowobjectorsheldtobetheonlyjobnaturehas assignedtoananimal ssensoryapparatus isitselfinherentlyboundupwith self perception.
10 Hereishowthepassagegoes(Elements5.60-6.10): εἰςτίποτ οὖνφέρειοὗτοςὁλόγος;εἰςπάνυκαλὴνκαὶἀναντίλεκτον ὑπόμνησιντοῦπροκειμένου καθόλουγὰροὐσυντελεῖταιτῶνἐκτόςτινος ἀντίληψιςδίχατῆςἑαυτῶναἰσθήσεως.μετὰγὰρτῆςτοῦλευκοῦφέρε εἰπεῖναἰσθήσεωςκαὶἑαυτῶναἰσθανόμεθαλευκαινομένωνκαὶμετὰ<τῆς> τοῦγλυκέωςγλυκαζομένωνκαὶμετὰτῆςτοῦθερμοῦθερμαινομένωνκἀπὶ τῶνἄλλωντἀνάλογον ὥστ ἐπειδὴπάντωςμὲνγεννηθὲνεὐθὺςαἰσθάνεταί τινοςτὸζῶιον,τῆιδ ἑτέρουτινὸςαἰσθήσεισυμπέφυκεν<ἡ>ἑαυτοῦ, φανερὸνὡςἀπ ἀρχῆςαἰσθάνοιτ ἂνἑαυτῶντὰζῶια. Sowhereisthisargumenttakingus?Toaveryfineandunanswerable indicationofthetruthofthethesisweareadvancing.forquitegenerally, apprehensionofanyoftheexternalsisnotachievedwithoutself awareness. Forwiththeperceptionofwhatisbrightcoloured,forexample,weareaware ofourselvesbeingbrightened;withtheperceptionofwhatissweet,of ourselvesbeingsweetened;withtheperceptionofwhatishot,ofourselves beingheated;andinothercasesanalogously[i.e.oftheimpactofbrightness, sweetness,heat,etc.uponus,itakeit].sosinceassuredlytheanimal perceivessomethingassoonasitisborn,andsinceself awarenessis inherentlyboundupwiththeperceptionofsomeotherthing,itisevidentthat fromthebeginninganimalshaveself awareness. ThereareallsortsofquestionsthatHierocles argumenthereislikelytoprompt inreadersbeforetheyarepreparedtosignuptohisconclusion.butitistimeto movebacktoplato. 3.Movement,dance,andplay Idon tthinkplatowouldhavelikedeithertheepicureanorthestoicversionof thecradleargument,thoughthereisnodoubtthatforhimtheepicurean diagnosisofpleasureandpainaswhatprimarilyattractsanddeterschildrenand makesthembehaveastheydomustbeontherightlines.hislastdialogue,the Laws,hasmoretosayaboutchildrenandchildhoodthananyothersurviving Greekphilosophicaltext.Andthatpleasureandpainarethefactorsthatgovern thebehaviourofchildren(andindeedofmostofhumanity)isafundamental thesisofthework.thereisawonderfulpassageatthebeginningofbook2 whichsumsupplato sbasicstoryaboutyounganimalsingeneral(laws2.653d 654a): φησὶνδὲτὸνέονἅπανὡςἔποςεἰπεῖντοῖςτεσώμασικαὶταῖςφωναῖς ἡσυχίανἄγεινοὐδύνασθαι,κινεῖσθαιδὲἀεὶζητεῖνκαὶφθέγγεσθαι,τὰμὲν ἁλλόμενα καὶσκιρτῶντα,οἷονὀρχούμεναμεθ ἡδονῆςκαὶπροσπαίζοντα,τὰδὲ φθεγγόμεναπάσαςφωνάς.τὰμὲνοὖνἄλλαζῷαοὐκἔχειναἴσθησιντῶνἐν ταῖςκινήσεσιντάξεωνοὐδὲἀταξιῶν,οἷςδὴῥυθμὸςὄνομακαὶἁρμονία ἡμῖνδὲοὓςεἴπομεντοὺςθεοὺςσυγχορευτὰςδεδόσθαι,τούτουςεἶναικαὶ τοὺςδεδωκόταςτὴνἔνρυθμόντεκαὶἐναρμόνιοναἴσθησινμεθ ἡδονῆς. Accordingtothestory,prettywelleveryyoungcreatureisincapableof
11 keepingquiet,eitherphysicallyorvocally.ithastobetryingtomoveand makesoundsallthetime,nowjumpingandskipping(dancingforpleasure,for example,orplayinggames),nowutteringallkindsofsounds.othercreatures havenoperceptionoforderordisorder whatwecallrhythmandharmony inthesemotions.butinourcase,thegodswesaidhavebeengiventoustobe ourcompanionsinthedance theyarealsotheoneswhohavegivenusthe abilityto take pleasure in the perception of rhythm and harmony. Whenhereprisesthispassagetenorsopageslater(664e),Plato sspeaker the AthenianStranger insertsintohisaccountofthemovementsandsoundsmade byyounganimalsacrucialadverb,inordertosharpenthecontrastimplicitin theoriginalversion.thenatureofallyounganimals,hesays,isfiery intheir restlessnesstheyarealways makingutterancesandleapingaboutindisorder (ἀτάκτως) ;whereasinthespheresofmovementandsoundsalike,itisonly humannaturethathasasenseoforder.inotherwords,humaninfants,likeother younganimals,startlifewithachaoticrepertoireofmovementsandvocalnoises incontrasttotheperceptionofrhythmandharmonyinwhichtheyandonly theywillastheygrowoldertakepleasure. Whyshouldlifeatitsbeginningsbesochaotic?Nowadayswemightlook todevelopmentalpsychologyandpsychologistsforananswertothatkindof question.theanswerplatohadalreadyhimselfoffered,inthetimaeus,is workedoutinthecontextofthatdialogue sspeculativeattempttoexplainwhat isinvolvedinthecreationofacosmosandofthebiospherethatthecosmos sustainsandindeedconstitutes.wherethecreationofthehumanspeciesis concerned,theexplanationfocusesonthenotionofembodiment.wehaveto thinkofhumansasimmortalsoulsimplantedinbodies,justastheslaveboy passageinthemenohadadumbrated.platodevotesalongandcomplexstretch oftexttothistopic:icanonlysummarizethegistandhighlightoneortwokey passages. Thebasicideaisthatuponembodiment,thesoulbecomessubjectto severedisturbance.birthisaterribleshock,andplatoishereexplainingwhy.in andofitselfimmortalsoulispurerationality,itsmotionoractivityperfectly ordered(herepresentsitascircular,exhibitingtheultimateformofregularity). Thebodyofthenewbornanimal,however,isinconstantebbandflow,thanksto itsneedforfrequentintakeofnourishmentwithassociateddigestiveprocesses, andfornolessfrequentexpulsionoffoodwaste.platotalksofitasariverin spate,oragainasatidalwavefloodinginandflowingout.andheaskshimself whattheoutcomemustbeoftheinteractionbetweenthepsychicmotionsofthe soul,nowconfinedwithinabody,andthephysicalebbandflowbroughtabout bytheconsumptionanddigestionofnourishmentandtheejectionofconsequent wastes. HereisthepassagewherePlatosketcheshisreply(Timaeus43a b): αἱδ εἰςποταμὸνἐνδεθεῖσαιπολὺνοὔτ ἐκράτουνοὔτ ἐκρατοῦντο,βίᾳδὲ ἐφέροντοκαὶἔφερον,ὥστετὸμὲνὅλονκινεῖσθαιζῷον,ἀτάκτωςμὴνὅπῃ τύχοιπροϊέναικαὶἀλόγως,τὰςἓξἁπάσαςκινήσειςἔχον εἴςτεγὰρτὸ πρόσθεκαὶὄπισθενκαὶπάλινεἰςδεξιὰκαὶἀριστερὰκάτωτεκαὶἄνωκαὶ πάντῃκατὰτοὺςἓξτόπουςπλανώμεναπροῄειν.
12 These[sc.orbitsoftheimmortalsoul],nowboundintoamightyriver,neither masterednorweremasteredbyit,buttosseditviolentlyandwereviolently tossedbyit.consequentlythewholelivinganimalmoved,butitsprogress wasdisordered,withoutanyrationalbasis haphazard,inawaythat involvedallsixformsofmotion.itwouldgoforwardsandbackwards,and againrightandleft,andupwardsanddownwards,wanderingeverywhich wayinthesesixdirections. Whatisbeingsaidhereseemstoadduptosomethinglikethefollowing.Psychic andphysicalmovementsinteractingwithinthebodydoatanyonetimeresolve themselvesintoasinglemovementofthenewbornanimalasawhole.butthere isnostabilitytotheresolution.insteadwegetajerkyoscillation,withasoul motioninforciblecontrolatonepoint,onlytobeovercomebysomebodily motionconnectedtothefeedingandexcretoryprocessesatasubsequent moment. Platothengoesontodiscusswhathedescribesasthestillgreater turbulenceproducedbytheimpactofexternalbodiesontheinfant sownbody. Thesegeneratemotionswithinitthataretransmittedtothesoul:sensations (αἴσθήσεις).sensationscombinewiththedigestiveprocessesto stirandshake violentlytheorbitsofthesoul,mutilatingthemanddisfiguringtheminany everypossibleway.theresultthistimeisdrasticimpairmentofthesoul s cognitivecapacity:itmisidentifiesdifferentthingsasthesame,andtakes identicalthingstobedifferent infact,itisnolongerexercisinganycontrol. All thesedisturbances Platoconcludes, arenodoubtthereasonwhynowaswellas atthebeginning[i.e.ofcreation]soulbecomesunintelligentatfirst,whenitis boundintoamortalbody (Timaeus44a b). Tworeflectionsatthispoint.Thefirstrelatestothecradleargumentwe werediscussingalittlewhileago.thecradleargumenthadofcoursenotyet beeninvented,norconsequentlywasitavailableasfoundationstoneforethics intheepicureanorstoicstyle.butitisnothardtoseewhatplatowouldhave thoughtofitifhehadknownaboutit.forhimcradleargumentationwouldhave tobetotallyandutterlymisconceived.forhimthenewborninfantisina conditionofdysfunctionalshock:natureinmaximaldisturbance.thinkingthat onecouldfindhereanyindicationsfromnatureofthehumanτέλοςwouldonhis premisesbeabizarrestrategicerrorforthemoralphilosopher.mysecond reflectionisreallythereversesideofthatsamecoin.wecanalreadyguesswhat forplatothejobofmoralandpoliticalphilosophywillhavetobe.ifnothingelse, itwillhavetoinvolvethediscoveryandimplementationofaregimeoftraining andeducationthatwillrestoretheimmortalsoultoproperfunctioning sothat itexercisesreliablecontroloverthemovementsofthebody,bringingtheminto rationalorder. TheplacewherePlatoundertakesthisprojectisBook7oftheLaws.His discussionoftrainingandeducationthereextendsto35stephanuspagesoftext, soiwillbeabletoextractonlythreemajorpoints,anddealwiththemvery brieflyatthat.firstandperhapsmostfascinatingishistreatmentoftheearliest stagesofupbringing,whichashearguesshouldincludetheperiodofpregnancy, andwhatintrevorsaunders Penguintranslationisnicelyifover exuberantly describedas theathleticsoftheembryo.plato sstartingpointistheobservation thattheearlieststagesofgrowth inhumansthefirstfiveyears aremuchthe
13 biggestandmostimportant,followedbytheproposalthatit swhenthebodyis gettingmostnourishmentthatitneedsmostexercise,andwhatismore, exercisesthatare well measured (συμμέτρων:laws7.789a).soheadvocates regularwalksforpregnantwomen,andformothersandnursesheprescribes thatbabiesandpre toddlers,andevenforawhiletoddlers(untiltheyarethree yearsold),shouldbecarriedaroundagreatdeal:theirbodiesshouldatthe outsetbemouldedlikewaxwhilestillsupple,andevenwhentheycanwalkthey mustbekeptfromdistortingtheiryounglimbsthroughforcingthemwhenthey putpressureonthem.thereisafamousparagraph,sometimesinvokedin discussionofaristotle sideaoftragiccatharsis,inwhichplatoendorsesthe homeopathicpracticeofnursesand thewomenwhocurecorybantic conditions :mothersputwakefulbabiestosleepbyrockingthemconstantly,not insilencebutsingingtothem,justasbacchicfrenzyiscalmedbydanceandsong (ibid.790d e).asforexpectantmothers,careshouldbetakentoensurethatthey don texperiencefrequentorglosspleasures(orpainseither):somebody expectingababyneedstokeepcheerfulandplacidthroughout. AnybodywhoknowsanythingaboutPlato slawsknowsthatinthe societyheenvisagesinthedialoguebigbrotherisalwayswatchingus.thatisas truefortheregimeoftrainingandeducationprescribedthroughouttherestof childhoodasanyothersphereoflife,andtothisiturnasmysecondtopic. Perhapsthetwokeynotesarethecontrastingpracticesofpunishmentandplay. Ofallwildthings.Platosaysatonejuncture, thechildisthemost unmanageable (ibid.808d).thisisbecauseofchildren sunchanneledpowerof thinking,whichmakesthemscheming,sly,andextremelyinsolent.sotheyneed tobefettered withbridles,asitwere.ontheotherhand,platoisratherkeen onplayasthewaytogetchildren smindsworkingontherightlines.hehasan eloquentpassageonthewaytheegyptiansteachchildrenarithmeticand geometrythroughplayofvarioussorts,andthewaytheysucceedinmaking peoplealertandusefultothemselvesthatway(ibid.819a d). WestartedourlookatwhattheLawssaysaboutchildhoodwiththe passageatthestartofbook2whereplatotalksofthejoyofdance,andthe pleasurehumansaloneamonganimalsareabletotakeintheperceptionof rhythmandharmony.this finally iswhatthedialoguemakestheτέλοςnot onlyofeducationbutofallseriousactivity.anotherfamouspassagepropounds theparadoxthatnothingmuchinthehumansphereshouldberegardedastruly worthtakingseriously andthatplayisinfacttherightwaytolive(ibid.803e): δεῖδὴτὸνκατ εἰρήνηνβίονἕκαστονπλεῖστόντεκαὶἄριστονδιεξελθεῖν.τίς οὖνὀρθότης;παίζοντάἐστινδιαβιωτέοντινὰςδὴπαιδιάς,θύοντακαὶ ᾄδοντακαὶὀρχούμενον,ὥστετοὺςμὲνθεοὺςἵλεωςαὑτῷπαρασκευάζειν δυνατὸνεἶναι,τοὺςδ ἐχθροὺςἀμύνεσθαικαὶνικᾶνμαχόμενον. Soalifespentinpeaceiswhateachofusshouldliveoutasmuchandasbest aswecan.whatthenistherightwayofsoliving?tospendone swholelifein play infactspecificallyinsacrificing,singing,dancing:soastobeableboth toensurethatthegodssmileuponone,andtoresistanddefeatone senemies ifitcomestoafight.
14 Playhereseemstoturnwhatistrulyserious ritualworshipofthegods, whetherinsacrificesorinthedailychoralsinginganddancingheprescribesfor allsectorsofthecitizenry intoasortofplay,presumablybecauseofthecalm formalpatternsitexhibits,abstractedfromthemoreordinaryandless predictablebusinessinwhichpeopleengage.heemphasizeswhathethinksit willenablethemtoachieve:harmonywithdivinepowersandtriumphingover enemies.butforuswhatissignificantishowchildhoodandtheplayofthechild haveunexpectedlybecomethemetaphorforthegoodlife. 4. Achild sisthekingship Backnowandlastofall aspromised toheraclitus,andtotheenigmatic wordsoffr.52: α ἰ ὼ ν π α ῖ ς ἐ σ τ ι π α ί ζ ω ν, π ε σ σ ε ύ ω ν π α ι δ ὸ ς ἡ β α σ ι λ η ί η. Alifetimeisachildplaying,movingthepieces.Achild sisthekingship. FiercelydifferingviewsofwhatHeraclitusmightbesayingherecanbefoundin thecommentaries,withkirk 8 andmarcovich 9 resistingthecosmicinterpretation evidentlycommoninlaterantiquity,butwithkahnrevertingtoit. 10 Itis temptingtoreadplato streatmentofchildhoodinthelawsashisownnoncosmicmeditationuponheraclitus words andhisownformofheraclitean paradox.whenhewrites:παίζοντάἐστινδιαβιωτέοντινὰςδὴπαιδιάς,hemight betakentobeconstruingheraclitusasenjoininguponusaviewofwhatliving anentirehumanlifeoughttobelike.itshouldbeplay:theplay(παίζειν)ofa child(παῖς) playingjustisbeingordoingchildhood.itshouldbeplayinthe senseandforthereasonsplatogives.ifweabandonthepursuitsadulthumans usuallybutwronglyregardastheseriousstuffoflife war,makingmoney,for example andifalternativelywesetproperstorebytheorderedandmeasured activityexemplifiedintheplayofachildren sgame(suchastheπεττεία instancedbyheraclitus), 11 thenweshallbeincontrolofourlives,withheaven lineduponoursideandourenemiesunabletotouchus. WhetherHeraclitusreallymeantanythinglikethat,whoknows?ButI m temptedtofindinoneparticularfeatureofhissayingsomethingthatmight chimewiththeplatonicconstrualthatiamconjecturing.lookattherhythmic structureofthefragment.thefirstlimbconsistsalmostentirely(apartfromthe encliticἐστι)oflong,heavysyllables.thesecondbycontrastismuchlighterand morevaried:infactinmetricaltermsaglyconic.perhapsinthefirstlimb Heraclitusissymbolizingthedurationofanentirehumanlife,undifferentiated 8G.S.Kirk,Heraclitus:TheCosmicFragments,editedwithanintroductionand commentary.cambridge:cambridgeuniversitypress,1954. 9M.Marcovich,Heraclitus,Greektextwithashortcommentary.Mérida:LosAndes UniversityPress,1967. 10Kahn,TheArtandThoughtofHeraclitus,op.cit.(abovep.4n.3). 11Aboardgameperhapssomethinglikebackgammon.Therewasaparticularthrowof thediceknownastheβ α σ ι λ ι κόν,whichsoundsasthoughitmighthelptoexplain Heraclitus invocationofβ α σ ι λ η ί η, kingship:thethrow presumably thatputsyou incontrolofthegameandsogivesyouβ α σ ι λ η ί η (Plautus,Curcilio359).
15 assuch,butintheordereddancerhythmofthesecondthemeasuredactivity thatwillgiveuscontroloverit. 5.Conclusion Isthereanyusefulsumminguptobedone?Perhapsonlythis:Plato,theStoics andtheepicureansagreeonverylittleinwhattheysayaboutinfancyand childhood.butthereisonethingonwhichtheyareunanimous:ifyouthink aboutinfancyandchildhoodproperly,then asheraclitustaught you ll understandhowtothinkandtolive.