Matematici speciale Seminar 12

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Matematici speciale Semiar 1 Mai 017

ii

Statistica este arta de a miti pri itermediul cifrelor. Wilhelm Stekel 1 Notiui de statistica Datele di dreapta arata temperaturile de racire ale uei cesti de cafea, care tocmai a fost preparata. Temperatura la care ajuge aparatul de cafea este 180 de grade Fahreheit (aproximativ 8 C). I aul 199 o femeie a dat i judecata McDoald s petru ca au servit cafeaua la temperatura 180 F si aceasta i-a cauzata arsuri serioase i mometul i care a icercat sa o bea (vezi Liebeck vs. McDoald s ). U expert adus di partea acuzarii a sustiut la proces ca lichidele care se afla la aceasta temperatura pot cauza distrugerea totala a pielii umae i doua paa la sapte secude. S-a stabilit si ca daca ar fi fost servita la 155 F (68 C) s-ar fi racit la timp si ar fi fost evitat tot icidetul. Femeia a primit i prima istata o 1

despagubire de.7 milioae de dolari. Ca urmare a acestui caz faimos multe restaurate servesc acum cafeaua la o temperatura de aproximativ 155 F. Cat de mult ar trebui sa astepte restauratele di mometul i care cafeaua este turata i ceasca di aparat si paa cad ea poate fi servita, petru a se asigura ca u este mai fierbite de 155 F? Determiati ecuatia uui model de regresie expoetiala petru a reprezeta datele Reprezetati grafic curba obtiuta Decideti daca ecuatia obtiuta este bua petru a reprezeta datele existete i tabel Iterpolare: Cad ajuge temperatura cafelei la 106 F? Extrapolare: Care este temperatura prezisa, de modelul gasit, peste o ora?

Notiui teoretice: Statistica descriptiva: populatie statistica, esatio statistic, serie statistica, frecveta abosluta, frecveta relativa, histograma, media x, mediaa m 3, amplitudiea A, dispersia σ, deviatia stadard σ, moda (modulul) m o, dispersia de selectie s, deviatia stadard de selectie s, cuartilele Q 1, Q, Q 3, idicatorul de asimetrie sk (skewess), idicatorul de aplatizare k (kurtosis) Itervale de icredere cofidece itervals are used whe we wat to estimate a populatio parameter from a sample. The parameter may be estimated by a sigle value (a poit estimate) but it is usually preferable to estimate it by a iterval which will give some idicatio of the amout of ucertaity attached to the estimate. the commo otatio for the parameter i questio is θ. Ofte, this parameter is the populatio mea μ, which is estimated through the sample mea x. the level C of a cofidece iterval gives the probability that the iterval produced by the method employed icludes the true value of the parameter. The selectio of a cofidece level for a iterval determies the probability that the cofidece iterval produced will cotai the true parameter value. Commo choices for the cofidece level C are 0.90, 0.95, ad 0.99. These levels correspod to percetages of the area of the ormal desity curve. For example, a 95% cofidece iterval covers 95% of the ormal curve. The probability of observig a value outside of this area is less tha 0.05. Because the ormal curve is symmetric, half of the area is i the left tail of the curve, ad the other half of the area is i the right tail of the curve. As show i the diagram, for a cofidece iterval with level C, the area i each tail of the curve is equal to (1 C)/. For a 95% cofidece iterval, the area i each tail is equal to 0.05/ = 0.05. The value z * represetig the poit o the stadard ormal desity curve such that the probability of observig a value greater tha z * is equal to p 3

is kow as the upper p critical value of the stadard ormal distributio. For example, if p = 0.05, the value z * such that P (Z > z * ) = 0.05, or P (Z < z*) = 0.975, is equal to 1.96. For a cofidece iterval with level C, the value p is equal to (1 C)/. A 95% cofidece iterval for the stadard ormal distributio is the the iterval ( 1.96, 1.96), sice 95% of the area uder the curve falls withi this iterval. Medie ecuoscuta si deviatie stadard cuoscuta Teorema: Petru o populatie cu media μ ecuoscuta si deviatie stadard σ cuoscuta, u iterval de icredere petru media populatiei, costruit pe baza uui esatio de volum, este: ( x z * σ, x + z * σ ) ude z * este valoarea critica corespuzatoare lui 1 C petru distributia ormala stadard, adica z * = Φ( 1 C ). Medie ecuoscuta si deviatie stadard ecuoscuta cad deviatia stadard σ este ecuoscuta este estimata de obicei pri s umita eroarea stadard /deviatia stadard de selectie, ude: s = (x i x) i=1 1 si este volumul selectiei. Teorema: Petru o populatie cu media ecuoscuta μ si deviatia stadard σ ecuoscuta, u iteval de icredere petru media populatiei, costruit pe baza uui esatio de volum, este: ( x t * s, x + t * s ) ude t * 1 C este valoarea critica corespuzatoare lui petru distributia t-studet cu -1 grade de libertate. Pasul fial costa i iterpretarea rezultatului: pe baza datelor avute sutem C% siguri ca adevarata medie a populatiei se afla itre valorile date de itervalul gasit De retiut valorile critice z * si t * se pot gasi i tabelul urmator z-t-table distributia t sau distributia Studet este data de catre urmatoarea desitate de probabilitate: f(t) = +1 Γ( ) πγ( ) ( ) +1 1 + t 4

ude este umarul de grade de libertate si Γ este fuctia lui Euler. Exemplu: Suppose a studet measurig the boilig temperature of a certai liquid observes the readigs (i degrees Celsius) 10.5, 101.7, 103.1, 100.9, 100.5, ad 10. o 6 differet samples of the liquid. He calculates the sample mea to be 101.8. If he kows that the stadard deviatio for this procedure is 1. degrees, what is the cofidece iterval for the populatio mea at a 95% cofidece level? I other words, the studet wishes to estimate the true mea boilig temperature of the liquid usig the results of his measuremets. If the measuremets follow a ormal distributio, the the sample mea will have the distributio N(μ, σ ). Sice the sample size is 6, the stadard deviatio of the sample mea is equal to 1. 6 = 0.49. The critical value for a 95% cofidece iterval is 1.96, where (1 C)/ = (1 0.95)/ = 0.05. A 95% cofidece iterval for the ukow mea is: (101.8 1.96 0.49, 101.8 + 1.96 0.49) = (100.86, 10.78) As the level of cofidece decreases, the size of the correspodig iterval will decrease. Suppose the studet was iterested i a 90% cofidece iterval for the boilig temperature. I this case, C = 0.90, ad (1 C)/ = 0.05. The critical value z * for this level is equal to 1.645, so the 90% cofidece iterval is: (101.8 1.645 0.49, 101.8 + 1.645 0.49) = (101.01, 10.63) A icrease i sample size will decrease the legth of the cofidece iterval without reducig the level of cofidece. This is because the stadard deviatio decreases as icreases. The margi of error e of a cofidece iterval is defied to be the value added or subtracted from the sample mea which determies the legth of the iterval: e = z * σ. Suppose i the example above, the studet wishes to have a margi of error equal to 0.5 with 95% cofidece. Substitutig the appropriate values ito the expressio for m ad solvig for gives the calculatio = (1.96 1./0.5) =.09. To achieve a 95% cofidece iterval for the mea boilig poit with total legth less tha 1 degree, the studet will have to take 3 measuremets. 5

Testarea ipotezelor statistice I a decisio-makig process maagers make hypotheses which afterwards ca be tested usig the tools of statistics. A hypothesis test examies two opposig hypotheses about a populatio: the ull hypothesis ad the alterative hypothesis. How you set up these hypotheses depeds o what you are tryig to show. Null hypothesis H 0 the ull hypothesis states that a populatio parameter is equal to a value. The ull hypothesis is ofte a iitial claim that maagers specify usig previous research or kowledge. Alterative Hypothesis H a the alterative hypothesis states that the populatio parameter is differet tha the value of the populatio parameter i the ull hypothesis. The alterative hypothesis is what you might believe to be true or hope to prove true. What are some commo hypotheses? E.g.: Hypothesis to determie whether a populatio mea μ, is equal to some target value μ 0 iclude the followig: for a big sample size or σ kow we use the z test ad compute: z calc = x μ 0 σ for a sample size < 30 ad σ ukow we use the t test ad compute: t calc = x μ 0 s Two-tailed test: H 0 : μ = μ 0 H a : μ μ 0 the critical regio/ regio of rejectio, whe we reject H 0 is give by: z calc < z * α or z calc > z * α t calc < t * α, 1 or t calc > t * α, 1 Upper-tailed test: H 0 : μ = μ 0 H a : μ > μ 0 the critical regio/ regio of rejectio, whe we reject H 0 is give by: 6

z calc > z * α t calc > t * α, 1 Lower-tailed test: H 0 : μ = μ 0 H a : μ < μ 0 the critical regio/ regio of rejectio, whe we reject H 0 is give by: z calc < z * α t calc < t * α, 1 i all these examples α is the sigificace level correspodig to a cofidece level C = 1 α the critical values z * ad t * for differet cofidece itervals are show i the z-t-table Estimarea parametrilor pri metoda mometelor The method of momets is a method of estimatio of populatio parameters. The method is based o the assumptio that the sample momets are good estimates of the correspodig populatio momets. for a populatio X the momets μ k (or M k ) of order k are defied as: x k f(x)dx, μ k = M(X k ) = x k i p i, i I if X is cotiuous if X is discrete the sample momet m k of order k of a sample of size is defied as: m k = 1 The method of momets estimatio simply equates the momets of the distributio with the sample momets μ k = m k ad solves for the ukow parameters. (the distributio must have fiite momets) Method of momets: 1. we wat to estimate a parameter θ i=1. calculate low-order momets μ k as fuctios of θ 3. set up a system of equatios settig the populatio momets μ k equal to the sample momets m k, ad derive expressios for the parameter as fuctios of the sample momets m k. X k i 7

Let X 1, X,... X a sample from a biomial distributed populatio X Bi( 0, p) with parameters 0 ad p. Estimate these parameters usig the method of momets. Solutie: Sice M(X) = 0 p ad: M (X) = M(X ) = D (X) + M(X) = 0 p(1 p) + 0p, we ca write 0 p(1 p) = M (X) M(X ). Equatig: ( M(X) = m 1 = X ) 1 + X +... + X ad oe ca observe: thus: Exemplu: ( M (X) = m = X 1 + X +... + X ) 1 p = m m 1 m 1 p = m 1 + m 1 m m 1 ca be used as a estimator for the parameter p. I the same cotext: 0 = m 1 p = m 1 m 1 + m 1 m. 8

Aaliza regresiva pri metoda celor mai mici patrate i sectiuile aterioare am cosiderat experimete petru care am observat o sigura catitate (variabila) aleatoare, iar esatioaele respective au costat di date reprezetate de umere reale x 1, x,..., x i aceasta sectiue vom cosidera experimete î care sutem iteresati de doua catitati (variabile) aleatoare, deci esatioaele respective vor fi reprezetate de perechi de umere reale (x 1, y 1 ), (x, y ),..., (x, y ) i aaliza regresiva ua di cele doua variabile (spre exemplu X) este privita ca o variabila ce poate fi masurata (determiata) cu precizie, umita variabila idepedeta si sutem iteresati de modul cum cealalta variabila Y (umita variabila depedeta) depide de aceasta: spre exemplu sutem iteresati de modul de aportul de crestere Y al aimalelor î fuctie de catitatea zilica de hraa X. i geeral, itr-u aumit experimet alegem valorile x 1, x,..., x apoi observam valorile y 1, y,..., y ale uei variabile aleatoare Y, obtiad astfel u esatio (x 1, y 1 ), (x, y ),..., (x, y ) Se pue problema gasirii uei curbe care sa aproximeze cat mai bie datele obitute experimetal (orul de pucte) aceasta aproximare se face de obicei impuad coditia ca suma patratelor distatelor de la pucte la curba sa fie miima (metoda celor mai mici patrate) Regresia liiara estimam orul de pucte pritr-o dreapta y = f(x) = a + bx impuad coditia data de metoda celor mai mici patrate se obtie sistemul: 9

si: care are solutia: { a + b i=1 xi a i=1 = yi i=1 x i = i=1 xi + b b = xy x y x ( x) i=1 a = y i i=1 xiyi i=1 b x i = Y b X. Regresia parabolica estimam orul de pucte pritr-o parabola y = f(x) = a + bx + cx impuad coditia data de metoda celor mai mici patrate se obtie sistemul: a + b x + c x = y a x + b x + c x 3 = xy a x + b x 3 + c x 4 = x y Regresia hiperabolica estimam orul de pucte pritr-o hiperbola y = f(x) = a + b x impuad coditia data de metoda celor mai mici patrate se obtie sistemul: { a + b 1 x = y a 1 x + b 1 x = y x Regresia expoetiala estimam orul de pucte pritr curba y = f(x) = a b x se logaritmeaza relatia si obtiem: l y = l a + l b x care are forma uui model de regresie liiara petru datele (x i, l y i ), deci a si b se determia di: l b = x l y x l y x ( x) i = 1, si: i=1 l a = l y i i=1 l b x i. pri itermediul formulelor a = e l a l b si b = e 10

Probleme rezolvate Problema 1. Calculaţi cuartilele Q 1, Q, Q 3 petru următoarea serie statistica simplă şi abaterea cuartilică. X : 1,, 5, 7, 11, 1,, 3, 9 Solutie: Facem mai îtâi observaţia că mediaa m e coicide cu cuartila Q. Deoarece seria statistică dată are u umăr impar de termei (9 mai exact), vom folosi formula corespuzătoare petru a determia cuartila Q şi avem x 9+1 = x 5 = 11 m e = Q = 11. Mai departe petru a determia prima cuartilă ţiem cot de seria statistică simplă 1,, 5, 7, 11 care are tot u umăr impar de termei şi obţiem x 5+1 = x 3 = 5 Q 1 = 5. Aalog procedăm petru a treia cuartilă ţiâd cot de seria statistică simplă 11, 1,, 3, 9 care are tot u umăr impar de termei şi rezultă x 5+1 = x 3 = Q 3 =. Atuci rezultă că abaterea cuartilică este Q = Q 3 Q 1 = 5 = 17. Problema. Fie seria statistică Determiaţi: a) amplitudiea absolută A. b) abaterea medie pătratică a (X). c) dispersia σ (X). d) deviatia stadard σ (X). e) coeficietul de variaţie cv(x). X : 1, 5, 4, 0, 3, 16. Solutie: a) Amplitudiea absolută A este A = X max X mi = 0 1 = 19. 11

b) Abaterea medie pătratică a (X) se obţie astfel a (X) = ude media x este Atuci rezultă c) Dispersia este σ (X) = 1 6 1 x + 5 x + 4 x + 0 x + 3 x + 16 x, 6 x = 1 + 5 + 4 + 0 + 3 + 16 6 6 (x i x) = i=1 a (X) 6, 55. = 8, 16. = 1 ( 7, 16 + 3, 16 + 4, 16 + 11, 84 + 5, 16 + 7, 84 ) 6 = 51, 138 51. d) deviatia stadard rezultă imediat de mai sus σ (X) = σ (X) = 51 = 7, 14 7. e) Di cele de mai sus, rezultă coeficietul de variaţie cv(x) = σ (X) x 100 = 85, 78. Problema 3. Pe o perioadă de mai mulţi ai, u profesor a îregistrat rezultatele elevilor şi a obţiut ca media μ a acestor rezultate este 7 şi abaterea stadard σ = 1. Clasa de 36 de elevi pe care-i îvaţă î prezet are o medie x = 75,, iar profesorul afirmă ca ea este superioară celor de pâă acum. Îtrebarea care se pue este dacă media clasei x este u argumet suficiet petru a susţie afirmaţia profesorului la u ivelul de semificaţie dat α = 0, 05 (95% sigur). Solutie: Etapa 1: Formularea ipotezei ule H 0 H 0 : x = μ = 7 clasa u este superioară. Etapa : Formularea ipotezei alterative H a H a : x = μ > 7 clasa este superioară. Etapa 3: Metodologia de verificare a ipotezelor a) Câd î ipoteza ulă media populaţiei şi deviaţia stadard sut cuoscute, atuci folosim scorul stadard z ca şi test statistic. b) Nivelul de semificaţie este dat şi este α = 0, 05. c) Î baza teoremei limită cetrală distribuţia mediilor eşatioaelor este aproape ormală, deci pri urmare distribuţia ormală va fi folosită petru 1

determiarea regiuii critice. Regiuea critică este egală cu mulţimea valorilor scorului stadard z care determiă respigerea ipotezei ule şi este situată la extremitatea dreaptă a distribuţiei ormale. Regiuea critică este la dreapta deoarece valori mari ale mediei eşatioului susţi ipoteza alterativă î timp ce valori apropiate valorii 7 susţi ipoteza ulă. Valoarea critică ce desparte zoa valorilor u este superior de zoa valorilor este superior este determiată de probabilitatea α = 0, 05 de a comite o eroare de tip I (eroarea de tip I apare câd ipoteza ulă este adevărată şi tot ea este respisă). Etapa 4: Determiarea valorii testului statistic Valoarea testului statistic este dată de formula z calc = x μ 75, 7 σ = = 1, 6. 1 36 Etapa 5: Luarea uei decizii şi iterpretarea ei Dacă comparăm valoarea găsită cu valoarea critică observăm că: 1, 6 < 1, 65 Coform celor stabilite i sectiuea ipotezelor statistice respigem ipoteza H 0 daca: z calc > z * α Decizia: u putem respige ipoteza ulă! Î fial, tragem cocluzia că probele u sut suficiete petru a susţie că actuala clasă este superioară celor aterioare. Problema 4. Noua ditre studeţii uei facultati cu profil sportiv au fost selectaţi petru a da u test de alergare pe distaţă mare. Masurătorile petru acest grup au codus la u timp mediu de 1, 87 miute cu o abatere stadard s = 1, 3. Să se aproximeze, cu o probabilitate de 90%, timpul mediu pe care studetii itregii facultati il vor iregistra pe acea distata. Solutie: Deoarece u se cuoaşte dispersia populaţiei iar eşatioul are volumul mai mic dacât 30, itervalul de îcredere este dat de formula ( x s ) s t 1, α, x + t 1, α, ude x = 1, 87 ; s = 1, 3 ; = 9 ; α = 0, 10 ; iar t 1, α este valoarea critică a repartiţiei Studet (statisticiaul William Sealy Gosset folosea acest pseudoim i articolele sale ) cu 1 grade de libertate corespuzătoare valorii α = 1 C care î cazul ostru este t 9 1, 0.05 = t 8, 0,05 = 1, 860 coform tabelului z-t-table Obtiem itervalul (1.064, 13.676) I cocluzie sutem 90% siguri ca timpul mediu iregistrat de u studet pe acea distata va fi i acest iterval! 13

Probleme propuse Problema 1. Fiid date seriile statistice simple X : 1, 5, 7, 8, 10, Y : 1, 6, 100, 135 determiaţi mediaa î ambele cazuri. Problema. Îtr-o colectivitate s-au ales date statistice umerice obţiâdu-se X : 4, 1, 1, 5, 6, 3,, 1, Y : 100, 90, 40, 80, 70, 50, 100, 70. Aflaţi după care di variabilele de mai sus, colectivitatea este mai omogeă. Problema 3. Diagrama Herzsprug-Russell arata depedeta ditre magitudiile absolute si temperaturile efective de la suprafata stelelor: Petru u grup de stele di sirul pricipal al diagramei astroomii au iregistrat cu ajutorul telescopului Keck urmatoarele date: (+5, 5000 K), (+10, 3000 K), (0, 10000 K), ( 5, 5000 K), (+6, 7500 K) Cautati u model de regresie adecvat petru aceste date. 14

Problema 4. The operatios maager of a large productio plat would like to estimate the mea amout of time a worker takes to assemble a ew electroic compoet. Assume that the stadard deviatio of this assembly time is 3.6 miutes. a) After observig 10 workers assemblig similar devices, the maager oticed that their average time was 16. miutes. Costruct a 95% cofidece iterval for the mea assembly time. b) How may workers should be ivolved i this study i order to have the mea assembly time estimated up to ±15 secods with 95% cofidece? Problema 5. I order to esure efficiet usage of a server, it is ecessary to estimate the mea umber of cocurret users. Accordig to records, the sample mea ad sample stadard deviatio of umber of cocurret users at 100 radomly selected times is 37.7 ad 9., respectively. Costruct a 90% cofidece iterval for the mea umber of cocurret users. Problema 6. Let X 1, X,..., X be ormal radom variables with mea m ad variace σ. What are the method of momets estimators of the mea m ad variace σ? Problema 7. A cosumer group, cocered about the mea fat cotet of a certai steakburger submits to a idepedet laboratory a radom sample of 1 steakburgers for aalysis. The percetage of fat i each of the steakburgers is as follows: 1 18 19 16 18 4 19 4 14 18 15 The maufacturer claims that the mea fat cotet of this steakburger is aroud 0%. Assumig percetage fat cotet to be ormally distributed with a stadard deviatio of 3, carry out a hypothesis test, with sigificace level α = 0.05, i order to advise the comsumer group as to the validity of maufacturer s claim. Problema 8. Durig a particular week, 13 babies were bor i a materity uit. Part of the stadard procedure is to measure the legth of the baby. Give below is a list of the legths, i cetimetres, of the babies bor i this particular week. 49 50 45 51 47 49 48 54 53 55 45 50 48 Assumig that this sample came from a uderlyig ormal populatio, test, at the 5% sigificace level, the hypothesis that the populatio mea legth is 50 cm. Problema 9. X 1, X,... X represets a selectio from a populatio X with expoetial distributio, i.e. the probability desity fuctio is: { λe λx, if x 0, f(x) = 0, otherwise Estimate the parameter λ usig the method of momets. Problema 10. X 1, X,... X represets a selectio from a populatio X with Poisso distributio, i.e. the probability mass fuctio is: λ λk { e P (X = k) = k!, if k = 0, 1,... 0, otherwise 15

Estimate the parameter λ usig the method of momets. 16