The North Makassar Straits: what lies beneath?

The North Makassar Straits: what lies beneath? Robert Hall 1,*, Ian R. Cloke 1,2, Siti Nur aini 1,3, Sinchia Dewi Puspita 1,4, Stephen J. Calvert 1,5 and Christopher F. Elders 1 1 SE Asia Research Group, Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK 2 Tullow South Africa, 7 Coen Steytler Avenue, Cape Town 8001,South Africa 3 ConocoPhillips Indonesia, Jl. Jend. Gatot Subroto Kav 9-11, Jakarta 12930, Indonesia 4 Chevron, Jl. Asia Africa No. 8, Jakarta 10270, Indonesia 5 Marathon Oil Company, Jalan TB Simatupang No. 41, Jakarta 12550, Indonesia * Corresponding author (e-mail: robert.hall@es.rhul.ac.uk) ABSTRACT: It has been accepted for many years that eastern Borneo and western Sulawesi were close together in the Late Cretaceous but the mechanism and age of formation of the Makassar Straits, which now separate them, have been the subjects of much debate. Geological studies on land show that the straits formed by Eocene rifting. However, the nature of the crust beneath the straits remains controversial. The southern parts are likely to be underlain by extended continental crust but, in the northern Makassar Straits, it is more difficult to decide. Water depths are up to 2500 m, there is a very thick sedimentary cover, the basement is not well imaged on seismic lines and there is no way of directly sampling it. Field studies from the Borneo and Sulawesi margins have provided the basis for reconstructing the development of the straits, and suggesting they are underlain by oceanic crust. The rift and its margins are asymmetrical and wide, with up to 400 km of stretched crust on the Borneo side and about 200 km on the Sulawesi side, separated by about 200 km of the deepest crust in the northern Makassar Straits. Gravity data and flexural modelling on the Borneo side suggest a junction between continental and oceanic crust beneath the Mahakam delta. The oceanic crust is inferred to be of Middle Eocene age, similar to the Celebes Sea to the north; apparent conical structures on seismic lines have been interpreted as volcanic edifices. However, the earliest backstripping studies suggested thinned continental crust in the central straits and this has been supported by interpretations of new seismic data from the offshore area west of Sulawesi. Half-graben and graben are interpreted beneath thick sediments, there are low-angle extensional faults, and lineaments crossing basement can be traced into the deepest parts of the straits. These structures suggest an origin by oblique rifting of continental crust in which the apparent conical structures are interpreted as carbonate build-ups on tilted fault blocks. KEYWORDS: Eocene, rifting, continental crust, oceanic crust, Borneo, Sulawesi INTRODUCTION The Makassar Straits (Fig. 1) separate Borneo from Sulawesi in Indonesia and are situated within a complex tectonic region at the edge of the Eurasian plate. The northern straits are the deepest, with water depths of almost 2.5 km, and they open to the north into the Celebes Sea. The southern part of the straits are shallower, with water depths mainly less than 2 km and they continue south into the shallow shelf area of the East Java Sea. The Makassar Straits are today the main passage in the transfer of water and heat from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean, via the Indonesian Throughflow, which is thought to play an important role in the modern global climate system and have been an important influence on biogeographical patterns. Wallace (1869) shows a line up the Makassar Straits, beginning between Petroleum Geoscience, Vol. 15 2009, pp. 147 158 DOI 10.1144/1354-079309-829 the islands of Bali and Lombok, and then crossing the Celebes Sea, which separated Asian and Australasian faunas and is now known as Wallace s Line. There are two deep basins in the straits (Fig. 2). The North Makassar Basin is bounded to the south by the northern edge of the Paternoster Platform, often shown as a NW SE-trending fault, with a narrow deep channel connecting it to the South Makassar Basin. To the east is the Palu-Koro Fault, a major sinistral strike-slip fault running NNW SSE from onshore West Sulawesi into the Celebes Sea, and to the north is the Mangkalihat Peninsula which is also often shown as bounded by active NW SE-trending faults. On the western side of the North Makassar Straits is the Kutai Basin, the largest and deepest (15 km) basin in Indonesia (Rose & Hartono 1978) and one of the richest 1354-0793/09/$15.00 2009 EAGE/Geological Society of London

148 R. Hall et al. for many years (see Calvert & Hall 2007). The young fold belt in the deep-water region just offshore of West Sulawesi is now the target of active exploration. The character of the basement beneath the Makassar Straits is important for the petroleum system since it will determine the subsidence history, thermal history and, consequently, source-rock maturation, as well as the style of traps. If continental, it is likely there are Eocene lacustrine source rocks, tilted fault blocks and carbonate and clastic reservoirs. If there is oceanic crust beneath the Makassar Straits, Miocene organic material transported into deep water would probably be required for the petroleum system to work. Fig. 1. Geography of Borneo and Sulawesi and surrounding regions. Small black filled triangles are volcanoes from the Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program (Siebert & Simkin 2002), and bathymetry is simplified from the GEBCO (2003) digital atlas. Bathymetric contours are at 200 m, 2000 m, 4000 m and 6000 m. Wallace s Line is the dashed line; this is the original biogeographical boundary identified by Wallace (1860) but an alternative was later traced north to the west of Mindanao from the northern Makassar Straits by Huxley (1868). These were named Wallace s Line by Huxley (1868), as discussed by Mayr (1944). hydrocarbon provinces in Indonesia. The first deep-water production of oil and gas in Indonesia came from the eastern edge of the Kutai Basin, on the western side of the Makassar Straits, at the foot of the Mahakam delta. On the eastern side is West Sulawesi, with so far unproven hydrocarbon resources, but where oil seeps have been known MODELS OF FORMATION East Borneo and West Sulawesi were part of a single area in the Late Mesozoic (e.g. Katili 1978; Hamilton 1979) but were separated during the Cenozoic by the opening of the Makassar Straits. There has been debate about the age of formation of the straits (e.g. early accounts (Katili 1978; Hamilton 1979; Hutchison 1989) favoured Miocene separation of Sulawesi and Borneo) but an Eocene age is now generally accepted. The mechanism of opening has also been the subject of controversy and its cause remains uncertain. Most authors have favoured an extensional origin for the straits (Katili 1978; Hamilton 1979; Situmorang 1982a, b; Wissmann 1984; Cloke 1997; Guntoro 1999), with the Middle Eocene as the age of rifting (Situmorang 1982a, b; Hall 1996; Moss et al. 1997; Guntoro 1999; Moss & Chambers 1999; Calvert & Hall 2003, 2007) but no agreement about basement type. Hamilton (1979) showed an oceanic spreading centre down the entire length of the straits and interpreted several NW SE transform faults. Hall (1996) proposed that oceanic spreading in the Celebes Sea during the Middle Eocene propagated towards the southwest into the northern straits. Fraser & Ichram (2000) interpreted there to be oceanic crust beneath the northern straits and southern straits as far south as latitude 6 S. The Makassar Straits have also been interpreted as a remnant oceanic basin (Malecek et al. 1993), a back-arc basin (Parkinson 1998), and Guntoro (1999) suggested that extension was due to trench rollback and sinking of a plate subducting east of a magmatic arc beneath West Sulawesi. Others have argued that rifting never reached the stage of oceanic spreading (e.g. Burollet & Salle 1981; Fig. 2. (A) Physical setting and bathymetry of the North Makassar Basin shown on the global topographic digital elevation model (DEM) of Becker & Sandwell (2007). (B) Two-dimensional seismic data coverage used in this study (Nur Aini et al. 2005; Puspita et al. 2005) with sediment thicknesses in the offshore Kutai Basin from Moss & Chambers (1999), modified in the central part of the straits using the seismic data.

The North Makassar Straits 149 Situmorang 1982a, b). The inversion on the west side of the straits in East Kalimantan (Moss et al. 1997; Moss & Chambers 1999) from the Early Miocene, and eastward propagation of folding and thrusting, have suggested to some that the straits have a flexural origin. On the east side there was development of a fold-and-thrust belt in Western Sulawesi during the Miocene (Coffield et al. 1993; Bergman et al. 1996; Guritno et al. 1996) or later (Calvert 2000a, b; Calvert & Hall 2003, 2007) and, thus, the straits have been interpreted as a foreland basin formed after Early Miocene continent continent collision in Sulawesi (Coffield et al. 1993; Bergman et al. 1996) in response to thrust loading on one or both sides. The South Makassar Straits are almost certainly underlain by continental crust. They are relatively narrow and water depths are mainly less than 2 km. There are shelves with thin sedimentary cover above basement to the east and west. Granite and pre-cenozoic metamorphic rocks are known from boreholes that reach the basement. Although Hamilton (1979) interpreted an oceanic spreading centre, apparently based on the shape and morphology of the basin, as did Fraser & Ichram (2000), back-stripping and gravity modelling by Situmorang (1982a, b) indicate continental crust is much more likely, and this is now generally accepted. Recent seismic lines show up to 7 s of sediment above tilted fault blocks and half-graben in the central parts of the straits (Johansen et al. 2007), with a thick Palaeogene syn-rift sequence above possible pre-eocene rocks. Here, we focus on the North Makassar Straits where the nature of basement is much less clear. Since the crust beneath the Celebes Sea, just to the north, is oceanic, it is plausible that the North Makassar Straits are underlain by oceanic crust (e.g. Cloke et al. 1999b; Guntoro 1999) but others have put forward arguments in favour of attenuated continental crust (e.g. Burollet & Salle 1981; Situmorang 1982a, b). We summarize the observations from land on each side of the straits, which explain the age and character of the margins, and outline the interpretation of basement in the Makassar Straits based on land observations and gravity modelling. We then outline the observations of the offshore region based mainly on seismic data from the deep-water central and eastern straits. We then try to provide an objective assessment of the main arguments for oceanic and continental crust beneath the North Makassar Straits. THE GEOLOGY ON EAST AND WEST SIDES OF THE STRAITS Field observations cannot directly show the nature of the basement in the central deepest-water part of the straits, but they do reveal the history and dimensions of the rifted zone, which broadly support suggestions of a relatively narrow central area of oceanic crust with passive margins to the west and east (Fig. 3). West side: Kutai In Borneo the basement consists of metamorphic, sedimentary and granitic to gabbroic rocks of Devonian to Cretaceous age (van Bemmelen 1949; Pieters et al. 1987; van de Weerd & Armin 1992; Hall et al. 2008). Continental rocks are broadly in the west and, to the east, there are ophiolitic rocks, cherts and associated deep-marine sediments of Cretaceous age. To the west of the North Makassar Straits Basin is the Kutai Basin (Pieters et al. 1987, 1993; Wain & Berod 1989; van de Weerd & Armin 1992; Cloke 1997; Moss et al. 1997; Moss & Chambers 1999), which began to form in the Middle Eocene, and Cenozoic rocks rest unconformably upon deformed Cretaceous turbidites and ophiolites. Possible Paleocene Eocene volcanic rocks are reported from wells just south of the Mangkalihat peninsula (Sunaryo et al. 1988). Rifting formed a series of north- and NNE-orientated graben and half-graben (Cloke et al. 1997; Moss & Chambers 1999) which contain terrestrial deposits in their deepest parts, and pass up through marginal marine into marine deposits. The western depocentres generally became marine later than those further east. By the Late Eocene most of the Kutai Basin was dominated by quiet marine shale deposition with foraminiferal shoals and other carbonate build-ups on the crests of shallow-marine tilted fault blocks. Extension ceased by the end of the Eocene and there was regional subsidence with widespread deposition of basinal shales during the Oligocene, while locally carbonate deposition continued on basement highs and near to the basin margins. There is an important unconformity in the Upper Oligocene, interpreted as due to uplift in central Kalimantan at about 25 Ma (Moss & Chambers 1999) and possible renewed extension in the basin (Cloke et al. 1997, 1999a, c). In the Early Miocene large amounts of clastic sediments were shed into the Kutai Basin due to erosion of the Borneo highlands to the west and later and by inversion of older parts of the basin margins to the north and west (van de Weerd & Armin 1992; Chambers & Daley 1997; Ferguson & McClay 1997; Moss et al. 1998). Inversion migrated from west to east during the Early and Middle Miocene (Ferguson & McClay 1997; Moss et al. 1997; McClay et al. 2000). In the Late Miocene there was another phase of inversion, westward progradation of the Mahakam delta and exhumation of anticlines close to the present coast, removing up to 3000 m of section. Beneath the present mouth of the delta is the centre of the Mahakam depocentre where there is an estimated sediment thickness of more than 14 km (Moss & Chambers 1999). East side: West Sulawesi Immediately east of the North Makassar Basin are the Lariang and Karama regions of West Sulawesi where there are two major unconformities: one between basement rocks and Eocene shelf sediments, and a younger one between Lower Pliocene shelf sediments and Plio-Pleistocene syn-orogenic sediments (Sukamto 1973; Hadiwijoyo et al. 1993; Ratman & Atmawinata 1993; Calvert 2000a, b; Calvert & Hall 2003, 2007). The Mesozoic basement consists of metamorphic rocks unconformably overlain by less deformed Upper Cretaceous dark shales and volcanic rocks. These are at least 1000 m thick and considered laterally equivalent to basement in other parts of western Sulawesi, and interpreted to be the deposits of a forearc basin situated to the west of a west-dipping subduction zone (van Leeuwen 1981; Hasan 1991), or a passive margin (Hall 2009). Non-marine sediments at the base of the lower Cenozoic sections could be as old as the Paleocene, but the oldest dated sediments are marine and record a transgression in the Middle Eocene that must post-date the initiation of rifting in the region. The Eocene sediments were deposited in graben and half-graben in both marginal marine and marine environments. The post-rift subsidence phase had started by the Late Eocene. In the Late Eocene carbonate shoals and shelf mudstones developed on both margins of the Makassar Straits and, by the end of the Oligocene, most of West Sulawesi was an area of shelf carbonate and mudstone deposition. The lowermost Miocene has not been found, but there is little evidence in West Sulawesi for either a significant regional unconformity, or input of orogenic sediment. Instead, throughout the Early Miocene and in places until the Middle or Late Miocene, carbonates and mudstones were deposited on a shallow-marine continental

150 R. Hall et al. Fig. 3. True scale cross-sections across the Makassar Straits at the present day and interpreted for the late Palaeogene, modified from Calvert & Hall (2007).

The North Makassar Straits 151 margin. Further south, in the south arm there is no evidence for a significant break in marine deposition. Only during the Pliocene did the character of sedimentation across the whole of western, central and eastern Sulawesi change significantly. Uplift and erosion was followed by the deposition of coarse clastics derived from an orogenic belt to the east. To the west of the orogenic belt there was syn-orogenic sedimentation, inversion and folding above Palaeogene half-graben, detachment folding and thrusting, and the development of intra-basinal unconformities and mini-basins, which has propagated west into the Makassar Straits. In the Late Pliocene the Lariang and Karama regions of West Sulawesi changed from a passive margin to a foreland basin setting and sedimentation rates doubled. Width of the rift Interpretations based on the onshore investigations have favoured oceanic crust in the central part of the north Makassar Straits. The crustal-scale cross-sections (Fig. 3) interpreted from field observations and seismic data, first by Cloke (1997) for the Kutai Basin in eastern Borneo and, later, by Calvert (2000b) for the Lariang and Karama Basins of West Sulawesi, show that the Eocene Makassar Straits was highly asymmetrical and an extremely wide rift. The zone of extension of the western margin (Kalimantan) was up to 400 km wide, and that of the eastern margin (Sulawesi) was approximately 200 km wide, and the two reconstructed margins are separated by the deep-water zone about 200 km wide. Typically the width of the zone of extended continental crust is 50 150 km (Louden & Chian 1999), although it can be as large as 400 500 km (e.g. Orphan Basin, Keen et al. 1987; northern Gulf of Thailand, Chantrapresert 2000). Moss & Chambers (1999) suggested the great width of the rifted zone may reflect a weak warm lithosphere, possibly due to Cretaceous collisions in the region. But the great width of the areas of extension in Borneo and Sulawesi, plus the additional width of the deepest-water part of the central straits, strengthened the suggestions of Cloke (1997) and Cloke et al. (1999b) that the central North Makassar Straits were underlain by oceanic crust. Gravity and back-stripping Free-air gravity (Fig. 4) shows there is a broad gravity low beneath the central North Makassar Basin. This includes an elongated low northeast of the Paternoster Platform that follows the narrow trough connecting the North and South Makassar Basins, and an irregular low between the Mahakam delta and the Mangkalihat Peninsula. There is large gravity high beneath the Mahakam delta depocentre. Cloke et al. (1999b) interpreted the gravity data to suggest that oceanic crust lay beneath the central straits. They supported this by an investigation using gravity modelling and flexural back-stripping with a crustal model interpreted from seismic sections of the Kutai Basin. They argued that the free-air gravity high beneath the Mahakam delta was produced by rapid thinning of the crust from 30 km beneath the Kutai Basin on land to 14 km in the centre of the North Makassar Straits, as also suggested by Guntoro (1999). They then applied the method of Watts (1988) to determine the contribution to the calculated gravity anomaly from rifting (crust and upper mantle) and the sediment load (Fig. 5A) which they suggested indicated an underlying crust with an elastic thickness (T e ) of 20 km. Such an elastic thickness is similar to that of oceanic crust with an age of 48 Ma. Comparison of the calculated anomaly with modelled anomalies for different elastic thickness corresponding to Fig. 4. Free-air gravity map of the Makassar Straits Basin based on Smith & Sandwell (1997). oceanic crust of different ages and thinned continental crust with T e typical of rifts (Fig. 5B), shows that larger or smaller values of T e produced anomalies which matched less well to the observed anomaly. From this Cloke et al. (1999b) concluded that the central Makassar Straits was underlain by oceanic crust with a spreading centre situated to the east. OFFSHORE NORTH MAKASSAR STRAITS Until recently there were only a few regional seismic lines crossing parts of the Makassar Straits (Wissmann 1984; Bergman et al. 1996; Samuel et al. 1996) and these were mainly of poor quality and showed little that helped to interpret the nature of the basement. They did show thick sediments, the undeformed central parts of the straits, and fold-and-thrust belts converging from the west and east sides. However, in the last few years more than 10 000 km of new data have been acquired or reprocessed by TGS-NOPEC Geophysical Company during seismic surveys covering large parts of the North Makassar Straits (Fig. 2). These data have been interpreted in different ways and used to suggest possible volcanic structures (Baillie et al. 2000), a basement of oceanic crust (Fraser et al. 2003) or continental crust (Nur Aini et al. 2005; Puspita et al. 2005). Bathymetry and morphology The bathymetry in the North Makassar Straits reflects some obvious features of the deeper structure. The seafloor in the

152 R. Hall et al. Fig. 5. Results of flexural modelling and back-stripping, modified from Cloke et al. (1999b). (A) Profiles show the calculated (a) crust thickness and (b) sediment thickness anomalies which combine to provide the (c) total anomaly, compared to the (d) observed free-air and Bouguer gravity anomaly based on an elastic thickness (T e )of 20 km. (B) Comparison of the observed free-air and Bouguer anomaly and the calculated anomaly expected for different values of T e : values typical of rift basins (T e =5 and 10 km) and old oceanic crust (T e =50 km). The best match is for T e =20 km, which is close to that expected for 48 Ma oceanic crust. Thin dashed lines show the tectonic subsidence/uplift (TSU) and back-stripped Moho based on a T e =20 km. Fig. 6. Three-dimensional view of bathymetry of the North Makassar Straits and topography of Western Sulawesi produced by merging bathymetric data from seismic data with the global bathymetry of Smith & Sandwell (1997) and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) topographic data for onshore Sulawesi. The cliff-like feature east of the Offshore West Sulawesi Foldbelt, especially clear behind the Southern Structural Province (SSP), is partly an artefact of the merged bathymetric data. Nevertheless, a very steep rise to the shelf must be present as there is a very short distance between the 1000 m bathymetric contour and the coast. CSP, Central Structural Province; NSP, Northern Structural Province. central North Makassar Straits is flat and undeformed (Fig. 6). In the north the water depth is almost 2500 m and is about 200 m less in the south. Depths decrease towards the carbonate-dominated Paternoster Platform in the south and the Mangkalihat Peninsula in the north. To the west, the seafloor rises gradually to the very shallow East Kalimantan Shelf, crossing the front of the Mahakam delta. In the east, the seafloor shallows towards western Sulawesi, rather more abruptly than on the west side, reflecting folding and thrusting of a deformed zone that is now described as the Offshore West Sulawesi Foldbelt. From south to north, this deformed zone can be divided into three provinces (Fig. 6): the Southern Structural Province (SSP), Central Structural Province (CSP) and Northern Structural Province (NSP) based on seafloor characteristics, subsurface deformation, in particular the character and position of the deformation front. The SSP is south of 1 30#S andisc. 40 80 km wide. The CSP is very narrow, about 30 km wide and lies between latitude 0 50#S and 1 30#S. The NSP is north of latitude 0 50#S and is between 50 km and 100 km wide. Its northern limit is not seen. At the very northern edge of the North Makassar Straits is the Palu-Koro fault which can be traced offshore but is seen on only a few seismic lines at the limit of our dataset. The area immediately east of the deformed zone is beyond the ends of the seismic lines but there is a rapid decrease in

The North Makassar Straits 153 Fig. 7. (A) Map of the surface of the basal unconformity by Puspita et al. (2005), showing the two main rhombic depressions crossing the straits in a NW SE orientation. Note the apparently continuous ridges trending NNE SSW and NW SE that have been interpreted as volcanic structures and tilted fault blocks. (B) The same surface contoured, with contours in seconds TWT. water depth. Combining bathymetric data from the seismic lines and topography from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) shows a steep shelf edge with a narrow shelf. Onshore, there is a narrow coastal plain and, just east of the coast, pre-pliocene rocks, including pre-cenozoic basement, have been brought to the surface by young thrusting (Calvert 2000a, b). Approximately 100 km east of the coast, the mountains are up to 3000 m high. Depths of almost 2500 m in the North Makassar Straits are separated from mountains of 3000 m by less than 200 km horizontal distance. Structure The Cenozoic sedimentary sequence in the central part of the North Makassar Straits is undeformed and separated from the Offshore West Sulawesi Foldbelt by a change in slope at which there are folds, and blind and emergent thrusts and backthrusts, which we describe as a deformation front since its expression varies from place to place (Figs. 6 and 7). The NSP and SSP are sedimentary wedges with different characteristics separated by the basement high of the CSP, gradually onlapped eastwards by a thin sediment cover which is little deformed. In the NSP there are no clear continuous reflectors, and thrusts and folds are not well developed. The seismic data suggest distributed deformation, small individual structural units, small graben associated with shale diapirism, and a steep sharp deformation front. All these features suggest relatively homogeneous mud-rich sediments. In the SSP, thrust faults and folds are very obvious, and growth strata between thrust faults can be distinguished. There is a gentler overall slope to the sediment wedge and no steep deformation front. The strong and weak amplitude reflectors in the deformed succession suggest interbedded sands and muds. The characteristics of the NSP and SSP are similar to those in deformed areas of the Timor Trough south of Timor (Karig et al. 1987) where variations along-strike in internal character and slope angles have been interpreted as due to differences between muddominated and sand-dominated sequences. Basal unconformity In the central part of the straits, and beneath the two sediment wedges, the deeper structure can be mapped out. However, tracing seismic horizons and interpreting structure becomes more difficult with increasing depth, due to the thickness of overlying sediments in the undeformed area (up to 4sTWT), and the thickness and deformation of the sediment wedges of the NSP and SSP (up to 7 s TWT). A very prominent reflector on most seismic lines and the deepest distinctive horizon that can be mapped throughout most of the area is here termed the basal unconformity (Fig. 7). Above it, strata are flat lying and mostly parallel to sub-parallel in the central part of the straits. In contrast to the bathymetry, the basal unconformity is deepest in the south, close to the Paternoster Platform. It ascends gradually towards the Mangkalihat Peninsula in the north, and descends to the east, towards West Sulawesi. Guntoro (1999) identified this reflector as top acoustic basement. Baillie et al. (2000) interpreted it as the top of oceanic crust or thinned continental crust. However, even though locally this horizon resembles the top of basement, in many places there are observable structures beneath it which have been interpreted as volcanic edifices, or rift-related topography with carbonate build-ups. Puspita et al. (2005) suggested this is the top of the syn-rift sequence. The most striking features to emerge from mapping the basal unconformity and contouring the surface are a number of NW SE and NNE SSW features (Fig. 7). At the southern end of the area is a rhomb-shaped depression, about 100 km wide, immediately north of the Paternoster Platform. This extends from the undeformed central straits to beneath the deformed belt, and remains at a similar depth across most of the straits. North of this depression is an irregular higher area of similar width. The NW SE to NNE SSW features are not associated with faults in the overlying sediments. However, at the north and south end of the North Makassar Basin are the Mangkalihat Peninsula and the Paternoster Platform. These are often shown to be bounded by NW SE faults. Both remained structural

154 R. Hall et al. highs during the Cenozoic with almost continuous shallowwater carbonate deposition, whereas from the Middle Eocene the Kutai Basin subsided to great depths. This suggests some deep structural control with normal faulting in the Eocene. There are linear features on the contoured surface trending broadly NNE SSW. Because of the spacing of seismic lines it is not possible to say with certainty that these features are continuous, but they appear to be asymmetrical, broadly continuous structures that have been interpreted as fault blocks (Puspita et al. 2005) and are probably the features that were interpreted as extrusive centres (Fraser et al. 2003). Mapping beneath the basal unconformity Especially at the southern end of the southern rhombic depression, it is possible to map structures beneath the basal unconformity (Nur Aini et al. 2005). The fault pattern (Fig. 8) is characterized by short rift border faults which are highly segmented and form en-echelon fault arrays parallel to the zone of rifting. In the area near the edge of the Paternoster Platform, en-echelon faults display zones of overlapping splays. A change in polarity of faults can also be seen in some areas. Overlapping fault tips suggest relay structures along which the fault polarity is reversed. The faulting has produced a series of disconnected NNW SSE-trending, structurally low, areas interpreted to be separated by relay ramps and other accommodation zones. Along-strike, the faults are discontinuous and associated with small half-graben and graben. In the south of the area the map of top basement shows an irregular topography interpreted as due to faulting, supported by the presence of clear syn-rift wedges in the hanging walls of extensional faults. Further north the structure at basement level is less well imaged due to the presence of the overlying thick, structurally complex, sedimentary wedges. However, by analogy with better imaged areas further south, basement topography can be similarly interpreted in terms of extensional faults. These observations have been interpreted as indicating oblique extension of a basement with a pre-existing fabric (Nur Aini et al. 2005). Oblique rifting of a sequence in which there are pre-existing basement faults leads to a complex pattern in which new faults are typically not perpendicular to the extension direction. By comparison with the analogue models of McClay & White (1995), the fault system in the North Makassar Straits seems most likely to represent oblique rifting with a principal extension direction E W, at an angle of approximately 60 to pre-existing faults (Fig. 8). This direction is different to the NW SE extension direction proposed by Hamilton (1979). DISCUSSION: CONTINENTAL OR OCEANIC CRUST? The nature of the basement to the central part of the Makassar Straits can be interpreted only indirectly, because the very thick sediment cover and the great depth to basement means that no direct sampling is possible. The deep unconformity in the straits is most likely the top of the syn-rift sequence and marks the beginning of the sag phase of dominantly thermal subsidence that continued during the Oligocene (Situmorang 1982a, b; Bergman et al. 1996; Guritno et al. 1996). The oceanic crust interpretation is favoured by the great width of the extended zone and, in particular, the 200 km width of the deepest part of the straits where depths are close to 2.5 km water depth and there are several kilometres of almost undisturbed flat-lying sediments above the basement. Backstripping and flexural modelling indicate that the best fit to observed gravity profiles is achieved if the basement is oceanic crust of about 50 Ma age, which is very similar to that demonstrated for the Celebes Sea to the north. In contrast, typically stretched continental crust in such deep rifts would have a much smaller elastic thickness. At the level of basement, NW SE-trending structures are interpreted as transform offsets of the spreading axis, and the triangular structures seen below the basal unconformity are interpreted as volcanic edifices. In profile, these and other features on seismic lines resemble submarine volcanoes, sills and dykes imaged in 3D surveys on the northeast Atlantic margin (Davies et al. 2002). The continental crust interpretation is favoured by the observations that rifting structures can be seen below the basal unconformity. Half-graben and graben are evident in places, and the pattern of faulting mapped below the basal unconformity is similar to that expected from oblique extension of a basement with a pre-existing NW SE fabric (Nur Aini et al. 2005). The NW SE lineaments which segment the basin are interpreted to be Cretaceous or Paleocene structures, which in places may have been reactivated. The northern margin of the Paternoster Platform is clearly a major steep fault with about 2 km of normal offset of the Eocene and the large displacement is inconsistent with an oceanic transform fault. Except for the Paternoster Fault, none of the NW SE features crossing the straits in our dataset show any sign of having been active faults during the Cenozoic, although on land, mapping in West Sulawesi (Calvert, 2000b) shows structures with similar orientation that continue towards the deformed zone offshore which probably segmented the area during the early Cenozoic and were reactivated as strike-slip faults during Pliocene to Recent deformation. The triangular structures seen below the basal unconformity are interpreted as carbonate build-ups on tilted fault blocks. The Makassar Straits and its margins are asymmetrical with a wider region of extended crust on the west side (Borneo) compared to the east side (Sulawesi), as clearly seen in the restored crustal sections of Figure 3. This resembles profiles across the southern Labrador Sea, where asymmetric passive margins are separated by a narrow zone of ocean crust (Louden & Chian 1999). Such asymmetry, however, may also result from simple shear, and extended regions of similar dimensions are known to be underlain by thinned continental crust (e.g. Wernicke & Burchfiel 1982; Ebinger et al. 1991). The great width of the extended region may reflect heating and weakening of the lithosphere during Mesozoic accretionary events (Moss & Chambers 1999) or long-term subduction beneath Sundaland (Hall & Morley 2004; Hyndman et al. 2005). The flexural modelling makes a good case for oceanic crust, and a central high strength oceanic lithosphere juxtaposed against weaker continental crust is consistent with the deformed zones on the west and east sides of the straits. However, the elastic thickness of continental crust is much more variable and less predictable than oceanic crust (Burov & Diament 1995, 1996; Watts 2001), and the modelled result of T e =20 km is well within the range of values from continents and their margins (e.g. Bechtel et al. 1990; Watts & Burov 2003; Pérez-Gussinyé et al. 2008). Elastic thickness varies with temperature, rheology and lithospheric structure, and a higher T e could reflect an olivine-rich rheology or strong layer due to Cretaceous ophiolite accretion. The volcanic structures interpreted from 3D seismic data by Davies et al. (2002) are about 1 km across, whereas those in the Makassar Straits are typically between 4 km and 10 km across. Their width and height would be unusual for basaltic volcanoes, which would be expected to form much lower and small gradient volcanoes, whereas their dimensions are very similar to tilted fault blocks from other

The North Makassar Straits 155 rifts. These structures are shown deliberately uninterpreted on Figures 9, 10 and 11, so that readers can compare alternative interpretations for themselves. The undisputed graben and half-graben seen in parts of the straits indicate extended continental crust, and mapping of the straits indicates the likelihood of oceanic basement beneath the eastern and central straits is low. This is the area where Cloke et al. (1999b) located the supposed spreading centre. In this part of the North Makassar Straits we have been unable to identify the many extrusive centres mapped by Fraser et al. (2003) in the area covered by our seismic dataset. Furthermore, we find it difficult to see on what observations the discontinuous spreading centre and transforms shown by Fraser et al. (2003) are based. In the northern part of the North Makassar Basin where they show the NE SW-trending spreading centre offset by NW SE transform faults in the deep central part of the straits, we interpret there to be NNW SSE-trending faults (Nur Aini et al. 2005) forming graben and half-graben (Fig. 8). Further south, the spreading centre and transform faults of Fraser et al. (2003) are at several kilometres depth beneath the sedimentary wedges of the Offshore West Sulawesi Foldbelt where we were unable to map the basement with confidence. The form of the oceanic basin interpreted by Fraser et al. (2003) is also questionable. In their Late Eocene reconstruction they interpret a symmetrical oceanic basin at the northern end of the North Makassar Basin with the spreading centre in the middle, whereas 200 km further south the spreading centre is offset to the east and is beneath the present coast of West Sulawesi. The eastern part of their symmetrical oceanic basin shows oceanic crust to lie beneath the 38 42.5 Ma shelf edge. Oceanic lithosphere follows a predictable age depth relationship (Parsons & Sclater 1977) and, even allowing for differences observed in small marginal basins (Wheeler & White 2002), the ocean crust would be expected to be at depths of more than 3 km within a few million years of formation. The palaeogeographical reconstruction of Fraser et al. (2003) therefore implies several kilometres of Eocene sediment and huge westward progradation of the Eocene Sulawesi shelf edge to move from their inferred Eocene basin floor fan domain above the former spreading centre to their deltaic influences and coals and deltaic sediments onshore SW Sulawesi. For these reasons we consider that the reconstruction of Fraser et al. (2003) is improbable. Nevertheless, extended continental crust in the eastern and central straits is not incompatible with the presence of some oceanic crust beneath the Mahakam depocentre on the west side of the straits where the flexural modelling of Cloke et al. (1999b) was carried out. CONCLUSIONS The Makassar Straits formed by rifting. Extension began in the Middle Eocene and formed graben and half-graben above which is an important unconformity of probable Late Eocene age. The unconformity marks the top of the syn-rift sequence. Structures can be seen beneath the unconformity which could be carbonate build-ups on tilted fault blocks or volcanic edifices. Thermal subsidence continued during the Oligocene. Flexural subsidence due to loading on the west and east sides may have deepened the straits, as inversion in eastern Kalimantan migrated east and the Mahakam delta prograded east since Fig. 8. (a) Fault pattern and interpreted structure mapped at top basement level by Nur Aini et al. (2005); (b) faults produced in analogue models of oblique extension (α=60 ) by McClay & White (1995). (c) Three-dimensional interpretation of these structures and underlying crust.

156 R. Hall et al. Fig. 11. Uninterpreted seismic lines showing examples of basement structures that have been interpreted as volcanic structures and tilted fault blocks. Fig. 9. Uninterpreted seismic lines showing examples of basement structures that have been interpreted as volcanic structures and tilted fault blocks. strength of a central oceanic area may have been of importance in localizing deformation since the entire Borneo Sulawesi region went into compression at the beginning of the Pliocene. From a hydrocarbon prospectivity point of view, the difference is of greater significance. If there is a widespread syn-rift sequence across the whole or most of the straits there are potentially a greater number of exciting exploration targets in deeper water. If the straits are floored mainly by oceanic crust, success will depend on organic material carried into deep water and distributed through sand-rich sequences (Saller et al. 2006) which appears a riskier system. Drilling results and observations based on new deep-water 3D seismic surveys may strengthen the arguments on one side or the other. The authors thank the consortium of oil companies who have supported projects in SE Asia for many years. Colleagues in Indonesia at the Pusat Survei Geologi, Bandung and Lemigas, Jakarta are thanked for help with fieldwork, as are Peter Baillie, TGS- NOPEC Geophysical Company, and MIGAS, for permission to use seismic data. The MSc programmes of Siti Nur Aini and Sinchia Dewi Puspita were supported by Chevening Scholarships from the British Council and ENI. Fig. 10. Uninterpreted seismic lines showing examples of basement structures that have been interpreted as volcanic structures and tilted fault blocks. the Early Miocene, while folding and thrusting of western Sulawesi migrated west since the Early Pliocene. The authors of this paper cannot agree on the nature of the basement beneath the straits and similar disagreement is likely to continue amongst those working in the area. From a large-scale tectonic perspective, the difference between oceanic and continental crust is not very important, although the REFERENCES Baillie, P. Gilleran, P. Clark, W. Moss, S.J. Stein, A. Hermantoro, E. & Oemar, S. 2000. New insights into the geological development of the deepwater Mahakam delta and Makassar Straits. In: Proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association, 27th Annual Convention, 397 402. Bechtel, T.D. Forsyth, D.W. Sharpton, V.L. & Grieve, R.A.F. 1990. Variations in effective elastic thickness of the North American lithosphere. Nature, 343, 636 638. Becker, J.J. & Sandwell, D.T. 2007. Global topography. Scripps Institution of Oceanography. World Wide Web Address: http://topex.ucsd.edu/ WWW_html/srtm30_plus.html. Bergman, S.C. Coffield, D.Q. Talbot, J.P. & Garrard, R.J. 1996. Tertiary tectonic and magmatic evolution of Western Sulawesi and the Makassar Strait, Indonesia: Evidence for a Miocene continent continent collision. In: Hall, R. & Blundell, D.J. (eds) Tectonic Evolution of SE Asia. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 106, 391 430.

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