DEFINITION OF A MAP A MAP IS A GEOGRAPHIC PREPRESENTATION OF A PORTION OF THE EARTH S SURFACE DRAWN TO SCALE, AS SEEN FROM ABOVE. IT S USES COLORS, SYMBOLS AND LABELS TO REPRESENT FEATURES FOUND ON THE GROUND.
PURPOSE OF A MAP A MAP PROVIDES INFORMATION ON THE EXSISTENCE, THE LOCATION OF, AND THE DISTANCES BETWEEN GROUND FEATURES, SUCH AS POPULATED PLACES AND ROUTES OF TRAVEL AND COMMUNICATON. THE MAP ALSO INDICATES VARIATIONS IN TERRAIN, HEIGHTS OF NATURAL FEATURES, AND THE EXTENT OF VEGETATION COVER.
Topographic Map: A line-and-symbol representation of natural and selected man-made features of a part of the Earth's surface plotted to a definite scale. A distinguishing characteristic of a topographic map is the portrayal of the shape and elevation of the terrain by contour lines. The physical and cultural characteristics of the terrain, as determined by precise engineering surveys and field inspection, are recorded on the map in a convenient, readable form. Topographic maps show the location and shape of mountains, valleys, and plains; the networks of streams and rivers, and the principal works of man. Topographic maps have many uses as basic tools for planning and executing projects that are necessary to our way of life. They are of prime importance in planning airports, highways, dams, pipelines, transmission lines, industrial plants, and countless other types of construction. They are an essential part of ecological studies and environmental control, geologic research, studies of the quantity and quality of water, and projects for flood control, soil conservation, and reforestation. Intelligent and efficient development of our natural resources depends on the availability of adequate topographic maps. Topographic maps are also utilized by outdoor enthusiasts, including hunters and hikers, to show relief features, wooded areas, and watercourses. All of the outdoors can be better understood and appreciated with the aid of topographic maps.
Topographic Map Series: The Topographic Map Series of the National Mapping Program includes quadrangle and other map series published by the Geological Survey. A map series is a family of maps conforming generally to the same specifications or having some common unifying characteristic such as scale. Adjacent maps of the same quadrangle series can generally be combined to form a single large map. The principal map series and their essential characteristics are given in the following table:
Topographic Map Series Series Scale One Inch Represents Standard Quadrangle Size (latitude & longitude) 7.5-minute 1:24,000 2,000 feet 7.5 x 7.5 min. 49 to 71 15-minute 1:62,500 about 1 mile 15 x 15 min. 197 to 282 Intermediate-scale quadrangle 1:100,000 over 1.5 miles 30 min. x 1 degree 1,145 to 2,167 U.S. 1:250,000 1:250,000 about 4 miles 1 degree x 2 degrees 4,580 to 8,669 International Map of the World Quadrangle Area (square miles) 1:1,000,000 about 16 miles 4 degrees by 6 degrees 73,734 to 102,759
MAP CARE PROTECTION FROM ELEMENTS TRANSPORTING CARE FOR LONGEVITY PENCIL VERSUS PEN
Map Scales Map Size Scale Covers Map to Landscape Metric 7 ½minute 1:24,00 0 15 minute 1:62,50 0 1 / 8 of a degree 1 inch = 2,000 feet ( 3 / 8 mile) 2.64 inches = 1 mile (1 centimeter = 240 meters) ¼ of a degree 1 inch = ~1 mile (1 centimeter = 625 meters)
MAP SCALES LARGE: 1:50,000 MEDIUM: 1: 100,000 SMALL: 1: 250,000
Latitude, Longitude, and UTM' The next thing that you should notice on a topographical map are the numbers running all around the outside of the map. These numbers represent two grid systems that can be used to find your exact location. The first is called latitude and longitude. The exact latitude and longitude is given at each corner of that map and at equally spaced intervals between the corners. The second is called UTM's. These are the smaller bold numbers that run along the border of the map.
Latitude & Longitude Latitude and longitude is the most common grid system used for navigation. It will allow you to pinpoint your location with a high degree of accuracy. Latitude is angular distance measured north and south of the Equator. The Equator is 0 degrees. As you go north of the equator the, latitude increases all the way up to 90 degrees at the north pole. If you go south of the equator, the latitude increases all the way up to 90 degrees at the south pole. In the northern hemisphere the latitude is always given in degrees north and in the southern hemisphere it is given in degrees south. Longitude works the same way. It is angular distance measured east and west of the Prime Meridian. The prime meridian is 0 degrees longitude. As you go east from the prime meridian, the longitude increases to 180 degrees. As you go west from the prime meridian longitude increases to 180 degrees. The 180 degree meridian is also known as the international date line. In the eastern hemisphere the longitude is given in degrees east and in the western hemisphere it is given in degrees west.
How Accurate Can Latitude and Longitude Get? At the equator, one degree of latitude or longitude represents approximately 70 statute miles. At higher latitudes the distance of one degree of longitude decreases. Latitude stays the same because they are always equally spaces apart. If you look on a globe you will see this to be the case. On the other hand, if you look on a globe you will notice that the lines of longitude get closer together as they approach the north and south poles. Degrees are not accurate enough to find a precise location. At best, one degree of latitude and longitude would define a 70 square mile area. To over come this problem, 1 degree is divided into 60'(minutes). So if 1 degree equals 70 miles and one degree can be divided into 60' then 1' equals 1.2 miles. Dividing 1 degree into 60' allows one to calculate their position with much better accuracy. In some instances even more accuracy is needed. To do this we can divide 1' into 60"(seconds). If 1' equals 1.2 miles and we can divide it into 60", then 1" equals 0.02 miles. It it is worth taking a few seconds to memorize the following numbers. It will help you to use latitude and longitude more effectively: 1 degree = 70 miles 1' = 1.2 miles1" =.02 miles
UTM Coordinates UTM Stands for Universal Transverse Mercator. It is another grid system that can be used to find your position. It is most commonly used in the military and for research as well as survey purposes. The UTM system divides the surface of the earth up into a grid. Each grid is identified by a number across the top called the zone number and a letter down the right hand side called the zone designator. For example, Phoenix Arizona is in UTM grid 12 S. Every spot within a zone can be defined by a coordinate system that uses meters. Your vertical position is defined in terms of meters north and your horizontal position is given as meters east. They are sometimes referred to as your northing and easting. In the following picture you can see the northing and easting coordinates on the boarder of the topo map. They are the small bold black numbers. Along the edge of the map the first UTM shown is 3901000 meters north. On a regular topo map the dash above that number would be blue. As you go up the right hand side of the map, the next UTM is 3902000 meters north. As you go up the right hand side of the map every time you pass a the small blue dash you have gone up 1000 meters (one meter = 3.281 feet). The same applies with the UTM's across the bottom of the map.
Map Symbols and Colors: USGS topographic maps use the following symbols and colors to designate different features (see Figure 6.2) Black - man-made features such as roads, buildings, etc. Blue - water, lakes, rivers, streams, etc. Brown - contour lines (see page 00) Green - areas with substantial vegetation (could be forest, scrub, etc.) White - areas with little or no vegetation; white is also used to depict permanent snowfields and glaciers Red - major highways; boundaries of public land areas Purple - features added to the map since the original survey. These features are based on aerial photographs but have not been checked on land.
Map Legend The map legend contains a number of important details. The figures below display a standard USGS map legend. In addition, a USGS map includes latitude and longitude as well as the names of the adjacent maps (depicted on the top, bottom, left side, right side and the four corners of the map). The major features on the map legend are show in Figure 6.3 and labeled below. Map Name Year of Production and Revision General Location in State Next Adjacent Quadrangle Map Map Scale Distance Scale Contour Interval Magnetic Declination Latitude and Longitude
Contour Lines One of the advantages to using a topographical map is that it shows the three dimensional lay of the land. It does this by using contour lines. A contour line is a line that connects points of equal elevation. On the topo map they appear as the brown lines.
The contour line traces the outline of the terrain at evenly spaced elevations. These are determined by the contour interval. The contour interval is found below the map scale. For this map, the contour interval is 20 feet. That means that every time you go up to another brown line the elevation increases by 20 feet and every time you go down a brown line the elevation decreases by 20 feet. In the lower left hand corner of the map there is a mountain. Notice how the contour lines define the shape of the mountain. The lines are closer together at the top of the mountain where it is steeper. The spacing between the lines decreases as the slope of the mountain decreases.
Contour Lines Contour lines are a method of depicting the 3-dimensional character of the terrain on a 2-dimensional map. Just like isobars in the atmosphere depict lines of equal atmospheric pressure, contour lines drawn on the map represent equal points of height above sea level. Look at the three-dimensional drawing of the mountain on the next slide. Imagine that it is an island at low tide. Draw a line all around the island at the low tide level. Three hours later, as the tide has risen, draw another line at the water level and again three hours later. You will have created three contour lines each with a different height above sea level. As you see in Figure 6.4, the three dimensional shape of the mountain is mapped by calculating lines of equal elevation all around the mountain, and then transferring these lines onto the map. On multi-colored maps, contour lines are generally represented in brown. The map legend will indicate the contour interval the distance in feet (meters, etc.) between each contour line. There will be heavier contour lines every 4th> or 5th contour line that are labeled with the height above sea level. Figure 6.5 illustrates how a variety of surface features can be identified from contour lines.
Drawn Contour Lines Steep slopes - contours are closely spaced Gentle slopes - contours are less closely spaced Valleys - contours form a V-shape pointing up the hill - these V's are always an indication of a drainage path which could also be a stream or river. Ridges - contours form a V-shape pointing down the hill Summits - contours forming circles Depressions - are indicated by circular contour with lines radiating to the center
Measuring Distances There are a number of ways to measure distance accurately on a map. One is to use a piece of string or flexible wire to trace the intended route. After tracing out your route, pull the string straight and measure it against the scale line in the map legend. Another method is to use a compass (the mathematical kind) set to a narrow distance on the map scale like ½ mile and then "walk off" your route. It is a good idea to be conservative and add 5-10% of the total distance to take into account things like switchbacks that don't appear on the map. It's better to anticipate a longer route than a shorter one.
Map Scale Map scale represents the relationship between distance on the map and the corresponding distance on the ground. The scale on the topo map is found at the bottom center of the map. Scale is represented in two different ways on a topographical map. The first is a ratio scale. The ratio scale on this map is 1:24,000. What it means is that one inch on the map represents 24,00 inches on the ground. Below the ratio scale is a graphic scale representing distance in miles, feet and meters. The graphic scale can be used to make fast estimates of distances on the map. The space between the 0 and the 1 mile mark on the scale is the distance you must go on the map to travel one mile.
Using the Compass The compass consists of a magnetized metal needle that floats on a pivot point. The needle orients to the magnetic field lines of the earth. The basic orienteering compass is composed of the following parts: (See Figure 6.6) Base plate Straight edge and ruler Direction of travel arrow Compass housing with 360 degree markings North label Index line Orienting arrow Magnetic needle (north end is red)
Two North s True North: (also known as Geographic North or Map North - marked as H on a topographic map - see Figure 6.8) is the geographic north pole where all longitude lines meet. All maps are laid out with true north directly at the top. Unfortunately for the wilderness traveler, true north is not at the same point on the earth as the magnetic north Pole which is where your compass points. Magnetic North: Think of the earth as a giant magnet (it is actually). The shape of the earth's magnetic field is roughly the same shape as the field of a bar magnet. However, the earth's magnetic field is inclined at about 11 from the axis of rotation of the earth, so this means that the earth's magnetic pole doesn't correspond to the Geographic North Pole and because the earth's core is molten, the magnetic field is always shifting slightly. The red end of your compass needle is magnetized and wherever you are, the earth's magnetic field causes the needle to rotate until it lies in the same direction as the earth's magnetic field. This is magnetic north (marked as MN on a topographic map). Figure 6.7 shows the magnetic lines for the United States (as of 1985). If you locate yourself at any point in the U.S., your compass will orient itself parallel to the lines of magnetic force in that area.
Which North to Use So we have two types of north to contend with. When you look at your map, it is drawn in relation to true north;, when you look at your compass, it points to magnetic north. T to make the map and compass work together you must decide on one North as your point of reference and base all your calculations on that. As you can see the following chart, failure to take declination into account can put you way off target. Declination or Degrees Off Course Error Off Target after Walking 10 Miles 1 920 feet (280meters) 5 4,600 feet (1,402 meters) 10 9,170 feet (2,795 meters)
Declination You can see that location makes a great deal of difference in where the compass points. The angular difference between true north and magnetic north is known as the declination and is marked in degrees on your map as shown in Figure 6.7. Depending on where you are, the angle between true north and magnetic north is different. In the U.S., the angle of declination varies from about 20 degrees west in Maine to about 21 degrees east in Washington. (See Figure 6.7). The magnetic field lines of the earth are constantly changing, moving slowly westward (½to 1 degree every five years). This is why it is important to have a recent map. An old map will show a declination that is no longer accurate, and all your calculations using that declination angle will be incorrect. As you will see, understanding this distinction becomes important when navigating with a map and a compass.
Using Map and Compass What's your Map Declination? The first thing you need to know is where you are in relation to magnetic north. You can find this information by looking on your map legend. If you look at the map of North America in Figure 6.8 you will see the line roughly marking 0 declination. If you are on the line where the declination is 0 degrees, then you don't have to worry about any of this, since magnetic north and map north are equivalent. (Wouldn't it be nice if all your trips were on the 0 degree of declination line?) If you are to the right of that line, your compass will point toward the line (to the left) and hence the declination is to the west. If you are to the left of the line, your compass will point toward the line (to the right) and hence the declination is to the east.
Bearings: The compass is used primarily to take bearings. A bearing is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from north (either magnetic north or true north) to some point (either a point on a map or a point in the real world) (see Figure 6.8). Bearings are used to accurately travel to a destination or to locate your position. If you are working from your map, it is called a map bearing and the angle you are measuring is the angle measured clockwise from true north on your map to this other point on the map. If you are taking a bearing off a real point on the landscape with a compass, you are using your compass to measure the angle clockwise from magnetic north to this point on the landscape. This is called a magnetic bearing. Remember that the bearing is measured clockwise. If you think of true north as 12 o'clock then a bearing to the right of that (1 o'clock) is greater than true north and a bearing to the left of True north (11 o'clock) is less than true north.
Map Bearings & Magnetic Bearings: If, you think about your map as an artist's rendition of the world. It displays true north, but it doesn't include magnetic fields as the real world does, so you need to make accommodations when going from your map to the real world. The real world doesn't have a true north it's merely a construct of the map so you have to make accommodations when going from the real world to your map.. The basic principle is this: to correct for declination, you want the map bearing and the magnetic bearing to be equivalent. If you are lucky enough to be on the line where the declination is 0, both are already equivalent, or if you orient your map with your compass (see page 00) then you have made the two equivalent. Otherwise, you will need to make your own bearing corrections by adding or subtracting the declination amount. That gives us 4 possible permutations to work with: West Declination - Going from a Map Bearing to a Magnetic Bearing West Declination - Going from a Magnetic Bearing to a Map Bearing East Declination - Going from a Map Bearing to a Magnetic Bearing East Declination - Going from a Magnetic Bearing to a Map Bearing
West Declination: If your declination is west, then magnetic north is less than true north and the map bearing is less than (<) the magnetic bearing. You need to make the two bearings equivalent by adding or subtracting the declination. This is illustrated in Table 6.2 and Figure 6.8b. Map Bearing to Magnetic Bearing: If you are taking a bearing from one point on your map to another point on the map with respect to true north, then you are working with the map bearing. Now you want to figure out where your position is in the magnetic bearing. In order to transfer this information back to your magnetic bearing you need to add the declination to your map bearing bearing to create the proper magnetic bearing. Map bearing + Declination = Magnetic Bearing. Magnetic Bearing to Map Bearing: If you use your compass to take a bearing from your current position to a point on the landscape, then you are working with the magnetic bearing. Now you want to figure out where your position is on the map. In order to transfer this information back to your map you need to subtract the declination from your magnetic bearing compass bearing to create the proper map bearing. Magnetic Bearing - Declination = Map Bearing.
East Declination: If your declination is East then magnetic north is greater than true north the map bearing is greater than the magnetic bearing. You need to make the two worlds equivalent by adding or subtracting the declination. This is illustrated in Table 6.2 and Figure 6.8a. Map Bearing to Magnetic Bearing: If you are taking a bearing from one point on your map to another point on the map with respect to true north, then you are working with the map bearing. Now you want to figure out where your position is in the magnetic bearing. In order to transfer this information back to your magnetic bearing you need to subtract the declination from your map bearing compass bearing to create the proper magnetic bearing bearing. Map bearing - Declination = Magnetic Bearing. Magnetic Bearing to Map Bearing: If you use your compass to take a bearing from your current position to a point on the landscape, then you are working with the magnetic bearing. Now you want to figure out where your position is on the map. In order to transfer this information back to your map you need to add the declination from your magnetic bearing compass bearing to create the proper map bearing. Magnetic bearing + Declination = Map Bearing.
If the declination is... Then... Map Bearing to Magnetic Bearing Magnetic Bearing to Map Bearing West Magnetic North < True North Map Bearing is < the Magnetic Bearing Map Bearing + Declination = Magnetic Bearing. Magnetic Bearing - Declination = Map Bearing. East Magnetic North > True North Map Bearing is > the Magnetic Bearing Map Bearing - Declination = Magnetic Bearing. Magnetic Bearing + Declination = Map Bearing.