Tycho Brahe: Observation and Measurement Then: Late 1500 s The Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe was one of many early scientists of the Scientific Revolution, a time period between 1500 and 1700 when many scientists discovered natural laws and created processes to test theory. In 1572, he observed a supernova for nearly eighteen months, and also the first recorded comet in 1577. In addition to observing and charting over 750 stars and heavenly bodies, Tycho s greatest contribution to science was his insistence in the use of careful observation and very detailed, accurate records on everything he did. He also created the most rudimentary telescope to make more accurate observations of the heavens. The emphasis he placed on observation and accurate records laid the base work for how other theories and methods can be applied and tested by future scientists. In that way his contributions still affect modern science. Tycho s Great Comet of 1577. Now: Observations in Space Even today scientists still keep careful, accurate records when observing and proving scientific theory. Kepler was Brahe s assistant and later used Brahe s records of Mars movements to further his theories of planetary motion. That s random! It s recorded that Tycho Brahe died of a urinary tract infection. He attended a banquet of a Baron in Prague, and didn t use the bathroom for fear of insulting his host. This combined with alcohol had caused complications. 1. List three (3) of Brahe s discoveries and contributions to modern astronomy.
Then: the father of modern astronomy disbelieves in the authorities of the heavens Up until the 1500s, everyone in Europe assumed that the ancient Greek philosophers such as Ptolemy and Aristotle were the authorities on the universe. As the age of exploration disproved some of their theories, people started to question what else was inaccurate. Nicolaus Copernicus is considered the first man brave enough to not only use logic and observation to do so, but to also publish the book that triggered the Scientific Revolution. This book was titled THE REVOLUTION OF THE CELESTRIAL SPHERES and he published it in 1543. He observed that the earth-centered, or geocentric, planet rotation theories of Ptolemy that the Catholic church supported couldn t be true because the planets patterns in the sky would be too complicated. Instead of assuming the theories of the past were correct and making his observations fit them, he dared to theorize a different possibility. He considered the possibility of a sun-centered, or heliocentric, universe model. Nicolaus Copernicus: Father of modern astronomy Now: from theory to foundation of science Copernicus s heliocentric theory had a major influence on several other prominent observers of the scientific revolution. Eventually, more astronomers proved he was accurate. Today his theory, the Copernican theory, is a key part of modern astronomy. Copernican Theory model That s random! This is why he s often referred to as the Father of Modern Nicolaus Copernicus was so afraid Astronomy. to publish REVOLUTION OF THE CELESTRIAL SPHERES against the beliefs of the church that he didn t do so until he was on his death bed. 1. Evidence from the Text-Support the following sentence with evidence in the form of a direct quote from the text: Nicolaus Copernicus is considered the first man brave enough to use logic and observation to disprove some classic Greek theories. 2. Would you be scared to publish your ideas if they were different from what most people thought like Copernicus did? Why or why not?
Galileo Galilei: Father of Experimental Science From Barter to Coinage Galileo is perhaps one of the most well known figures of the scientific revolution. He created the first telescope that resembles what modern science uses today. Using it, he observed craters in the Earth s moon, and that Jupiter had its own moons. Galileo did scientific experiments to test his theories of motion of objects, or mechanics. For this reason, he is considered the Father of Experimental Science. Most importantly, Galileo found evidence that backed up Copernicus s theory of a sun-centered universe. He wrote a highly controversial book called DIALOGUE OF THE TWO CHIEF WORLD SYSTEMS in which a discussion between two fictional characters about helio-centric, (or sun circled by planets system) and geo-centric (earth centered with sun, planet, and stars circling it) universal system models was held. It covertly pushed Copernican Theory of suncentered system. This book lead to his trial by the Catholic Church for heresy, or a belief opposed to the religious beliefs of the church. He tried to stay true to his beliefs, but eventually he recanted them when threatened with death. 1- I hope to show that I proceed with much greater piety than they do, when I argue not against condemning this book, but against condemning it in the way they suggestthat is, without under standing it, weighing it, or so much as reading it. -Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina of Tuscany, 1615 2- and because I had prepared a very excellent instrument for myself, I perceived (as I had not before, on account of the weakness of my previous instrument) that beside the planet there were three starlets, small indeed, but very bright. Though I believed them to be among the host of fixed stars, they aroused my curiosity somewhat by appearing to lie in an exact straight line parallel to the ecliptic, -1610, Galileo Discovers the Moon 3- First we must propound all those that have been put forward to prove the earth s stability by Aristotle, Ptolemy, and others, trying next to resolve them. Finally we must produce those by which a person may become persuaded that the earth, no less than the moon or any other planet, is to be numbered among the natural bodies that move circularly. - Dialogue of the Two Chief World Systems 1. Which one of the Letters and Discoveries of Galileo is about the movement of the Earth? How does he state the Earth moves? 2. What is the meaning of the word recanted in the following sentence: He tried to stay true to his beliefs, but eventually he recanted them.
Sir Isaac Newton: math and motion Then: A mathematicians theories became law Almost thirty years after Galileo s trial at the Catholic Church in Italy, the Scientific Revolution hit its golden years in the capable hands of an English mathematician. Sir Isaac Newton reviewed all the other research on mathematics, motion, and space. Then he made his own observations and notes. Using them together, he created four theories that have since then been proven and are considered laws in modern science. In addition to his theories, he wrote a book titled PRINCIPIA MATMATICA and it was published in 1687. He also invented the complex math called calculus, so scientists had formulas and processes to logically solve advanced theories or problems. Now: Newton s FOUR laws The first and most influential law Newton created was the law of gravity. He wanted to know how the moon stayed in orbit around the Earth. As the story was told, he saw an apple fall from a tree and theorized that the same force that pulled the apple to the group also made the Earth and Moon tug on one another. He realized that the mass, or amount of matter, an object has as well as the distance between two objects determined how much influence they have on each other. His other three laws had to do with motion. They explained how the universe is like a machine, and described exactly how everything moves in space. Step 1: Drop a book and a piece of paper from the same height at the same time. Question #1: Which object falls faster? Which object falls slower? Why do you think that is? Step 2: Place the same paper on top of book. Drop the book again. Question #2: Do they fall separately or together? How does the way the fall confirm his theory about gravity? The book and the paper form a vacuum, making them stick together. Newton asserted that if all objects were in a vacuum, or space without any matter or air resistance, an elephant and a feather would fall at the same time... Newton s first and second laws of gravity discuss how two objects respond to each other and air resistance. In short, an object will accelerate, or gain speed, if the forces acting upon it are unbalanced; the amount of acceleration is directly proportional to the amount of net force, or unbalanced force, acting upon it.
Then: An assistant builds on his boss s theories Johannes Kepler: The Planets Path Tycho Brahe was given the island of Hven by King Fredrick II of Denmark in 1576, and as he set up his observatory, he found an assistant. This assistant was the German astronomer Johannes Kepler. Kepler Did you know? A young Johannes Kepler suffered from a horrible infection of smallpox. The disease left him with weak vision and crippled hands. dedicated his own study time to the orbits of the planets. Up until this time, Copernican theory that the planets move in circular orbits around the sun was considered the most accurate theory. Orbits are the paths heavenly bodies (suns, stars, moons, planets) make around each other. However, Kepler observed Mars closely and discovered that it moved in a elliptical, or oval, orbit around the sun. This discovery not only confirmed Copernican Theory, but built upon it, and rocked the Scientific Revolution community. In addition to his orbit deduction, Kepler also found that the closer to the sun a planet was, the faster it moved. This theory helped Sir Isaac Newton with his laws of motion in later years. Lastly, Kepler also discovered that the human eye sees images in reverse like a camera lens. He toyed with the newly-invented refractor telescope and wondered how light works within it to show the heavens upside down. From there, he took the data he d gathered and applied it to the human eye. He also created an upgraded version of the telescope, called the Keplerian telescope. He also invented glasses for the near- and farsighted and wrote a book about his optic research titled ASTRONOMIAE PARS OPTICA. 1. Define the meaning of the word deduction in the following sentence: In addition to his orbit deduction, Kepler also found that the closer to the sun a planet was, the faster it moved. 2. Why did Kepler s discovery of elliptical orbits rock the scientific community? Use a quote from the text to prove it.
Francis BACON: The Right steps in the right order Then: Science could expand human knowledge into the future The many studies of the Scientific Revolution piqued the interest of several philosophers. One of them was an English gentleman by the name of Francis Bacon. He was fascinated with how those first scientists observed, studied, and theorized to discover and understand natural law. He said that science should be approached systematically and close observation was the only way to find the truth of all things. If done in this way, he felt vehemently that scientific research should be funded, and requested that the King of England do so. He also wrote a book about approaching scientific research this way. THE ADVANCEMENT OF LEARNING was published in 1605. Now: scientists still use Bacon s system Later, scientists developed Bacon s systematic approach with other philosophers suggestions into a procedure called The Scientific Method and it is still used in modern times. The Scientific Method combines mathematics, observation, and logic into six duplicable steps: 1. State a problem or question. 2. Gather information about the problem. 3. Theorize a hypothesis, or assumption about the problem. (Note, a hypothesis is different from a solution in that it hasn t been tested yet.) 4. Test the hypothesis by experimentation. 5. Record and analyze data on the experiment. 6. Draw conclusions on what the experiment s data revealed. That s Random! Francis Bacon was first employed as an interior designer. A study in November 2015 used The Scientific Method to test fat rats. The problem was obesity in Americans. The scientists gathered information on the topic, looking at previous studies and experiments as well as the diets of the American population, and realized that previous experiments weren t controlled enough to give good data. They hypothesized that high-fat, high-calorie foods would make the rats fat. They tested the hypothesis by feeding rats high-fat, high-calorie foods. They recorded how much food they fed the rats and how fat the rats became. Then they drew the conclusion that their hypothesis was correct. 1. Do you think the Scientific Method would work without one of its steps? Why or why not? 2. If you were the King of England and Bacon argued that you should fund science, would you? Why or why not? 3. Define the word vehemently in the following sentence: If done in this way, he felt vehemently that scientific research should be funded...
Now: Deduce from doubt Rene Descartes: Doubt until proven true Another major contributor to The Scientific Revolution was the French philosopher Rene Descartes. He emphasized that past science and knowledge should be doubted until proven to be true rather than accepted on faith. This highly contradicted the way people of his time and the church approached the natural world. He took it a step beyond the material experiments and tests, and argued that even these methods of collecting data could trick man s senses. He said only clear thinking and logic could offer proof of the truth. Descartes also emphasized the belief that the physical, natural world followed key physic and mathematical laws, so only logic could work with them. Descartes wrote a book called DISCOURSE ON THE METHOD, and he wrote it in French rather than in Latin so that all common men and women could learn to think for themselves. Now: How sleuths and scientists Use logic Though on a grander scale, the application of logic and reason emphasized by Descartes is still used in many fields of science. Detective and criminal investigation work is especially good at utilizing reason and logic to find the truth. Descartes doubt until proven true way of thinking is also used in various steps of the Scientific Method. 1. In your own words, describe Descartes theory of how science should be approached. 2. Do you think Descartes theories would have been as well known if he d written Discourse on the Method in Latin? Why or why not? 3. What is the meaning of the word contradicted in the following sentence: This highly contradicted the way people of his time and the church approached the natural world. Did you know? The famous line I think, there for I am is a phrase Descartes wrote as a statement for individual existence as a single, irrefutable truth.
Scientific Revolution Inventions Still Used Today The inventions of the scientific revolution took science to a new level by offering more accurate ways to observe and measure the natural world. Study the four scientific tools below and take note of what they are used for. Thermometer barometer Though it is not certain, Galileo probably made the first thermometer. A German scientist named Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit created a more accurate model in the early 1700s. He placed liquid mercury in a glass tube and observed how it expanded and rose within it as the temperature increased. He also created the Fahranheit temperature scale that is still used in the U.S. Use: Measuring air temperature. Did you know? These basic tools led to major advances in technology, such as steam trains and other industrial creations that made Europeans the most advanced continent in the world afterward. In 1643, Italian scientist Evangelista Torricelli created the barometer by placing liquid mercury in a glass tube and placed it upside down in a dish. He observed how it moved up and down with changes in pressure of the atmosphere over a couple days. The barometer became a great tool for studying weather. Use: Measuring barometric pressure in the atmosphere. Telescope Thought first created in Holland, the telescope went through many upgrades during the scientific revolution from such men as Kepler, Brahe, and Galileo. Use: To observe the heavenly bodies, such as stars, planets, and comets. Microscope Dutch lens makers in the 1500s created the first microscope, but around 1680 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek made his own powerful version. He was the first man to see the complex microscopic world of bacteria. Use: To see tiny plants and animals not visible to the naked eye with powerful lenses. 1. Which of these tools has made the greatest impact on our lives? Defend your answer with two examples proving its great impact.
The scientific method: Oh Snap! A Finger Snap Mini lab Review the scientific method- Do not read the Did You Know upside-down information until the end! 1. The question to analyze: What makes the noise when a person snaps his/her fingers? 2. Gather information about the question: Snap your fingers and write down what you observe. Write at least three observations down. 3. Theorize a hypothesis, or assumption about the question: After observing, hypothesis how and at what point the noise is actually being made. 4. Test the hypothesis by experimentation. Try isolating each action: A) Try to snap your fingers so that your middle finger (2) does not actually touch your palm. If this is too difficult you can use your other 5 4 3 2 1 palm hand to block the middle finger from making contact with the palm. B) Try snapping with your pointer (1). C. Try snapping so that all other fingers are pointed up (5,4,3,1). D. Now, snap normally. Why is it louder? 5. Record and analyze data on the experiment (record what your findings were from A,B,C and D). 6. Draw conclusions on what the experiment s data revealed. What is actually making the noise? Now read the upside down explanation. Were your observations correct? (1) The "friction" or "sliding" sound between the third (middle) finger and the thumb. (2) The "impact" sound from the third finger colliding with a groove created by contacting the fourth (ring) finger with the palm. (3) The "pop" sound from the rapid compression and subsequent decompression of air. The third "pop" sound is the most audible of the three components and because it is caused by DID YOU KNOW... a compression of air between the fast moving second finger, the palm and third finger. The second finger must hit both the palm and a small portion of the top of the third finger in order to get the full "snap" sound. If the second finger only hits the palm (like in 4C of the experiment), only the first two components will be heard and there will be a significant reduction in the total "snap" sound. This usually happens because the third finger is simply not in contact with the palm, but it can also happen if the third finger doesn't align properly with the striking point of the second finger. In this case, no part of the second finger lands anywhere on top of the third finger and ends up only hitting the palm.