DERN PHYSICS FOR SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS Stephen T. Thornton University of Virginia Andrew Rex University of Puget Sound -ML Saunders Golden Sunburst Series SAUNDERS COLLEGE PUBLISHING A Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publisher Fort Worth Philadelphia San Diego New York Orlando Austin San Antonio Toronto Montreal London Sydney Tokyo
CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 One Hundred Years Ago 1.1 Classical Physics of the 1890s 2 Mechanics 3 Electromagnetism 4 Thermodynamics 5 1.2 The Kinetic Theory of Gases 5 1.3 Waves and Particles 9 1.4 Conservation Laws and Fundamental Forces 10 Fundamental Forces 11 1.5 The Atomic Theory of Matter 13 1.6 Outstanding Problems of 1895 and New Horizons 16 On the Horizon 18 18 CHAPTER 2 Special Theory of Relativity 20 2.1 Historical Perspective 21 2.2 The Michelson-Morley Experiment 22 2.3 Einstein's Postulates 27 2.4 The Lorentz Transformation (optional) 30 2.5 Time Dilation and Length Contraction 33 Time Dilation 33 Length Contraction 36 2.6 Addition of Velocities 39 2.7 Experimental Verification 43 Muon Decay 43 Atomic Clock Measurement 44 Velocity Addition 45 2.8 Twin Paradox 46 2.9 Spacetime 47 2.10 Doppler Effect 51 Special Topic: Applications of the Doppler Effect 54 57 CHAPTER 3 Relativistic Dynamics; General Relativity 62 3.1 Relativistic Momentum 63 3.2 Relativistic Energy 67 Total Energy and Rest Energy 70 Equivalence of Mass and Energy 71 Relationship of Energy and Momentum 72 Massless Particles 73 3.3 Computations in Modern Physics 73 Binding Energy 76 3.4 Electromagnetism and Relativity 79 3.5 General Relativity 81 3.6 Tests of General Relativity 85 Bending of Light 85
xii Gravitational Redshift Perihelion Shift of Mercury Light Retardation 3.7 Predictions of General Relativity Gravitational Waves Black Holes Special Topic: Gravitational Waves CHAPTER 4 The Experimental Basis of Quantum Theory 86 88 88 89 89 91 90 93 97 4.1 Discovery of the X-Ray and the Electron 98 4.2 Determination of Electron Charge 101 4.3 Line Spectra 104 Special Topic: The Discovery of Helium 106 4.4 Quantization 109 4.5 Blackbody Radiation (optional) 109 4.6 Photoelectric Effect 115 Experimental Results of Photoelectric Effect 116 Classical Interpretation 118 Einstein's Theory 119 Quantum Interpretation 120 4.7 X-Ray Production 123 4.8 Compton Effect 125 4.9 Pair Production and Annihilation 129 133 Essay: X-Ray Lithography 137 by Franco Cerrina University of Wisconsin, Center for X-Ray Lithography CHAPTER 5 Structure of the Atom 140 5.1 The Atomic Models of Thomson and Rutherford 141 5.2 Rutherford Scattering (optional) 144 Special Topic: Lord Rutherford of Nelson 146 5.3 The Classical Atomic Model 153 5.4 Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 155 5.5 Successes and Failures of the Bohr Model 161 5.6 Characteristic X-Ray Spectra and Atomic Number 164 5.7 Atomic Excitation by Electrons CHAPTER 6 Wave Properties of Matter 6.1 X-Ray Scattering 6.2 De Broglie Waves Bohr's Quantization Condition 6.3 Electron Scattering 6.4 Wave Motion 6.5 Waves or Particles? Special Topic: Single Particle Interference 6.6 Relationship Between Probability and Wave Function 6.7 Uncertainty Principle CHAPTER 7 The Quantum Theory 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 The Schrödinger Wave Equation Normalization and Probability Boundary Conditions Time-Independent Schrödinger Wave Equation Expectation Values Infinite Square Well Potential Finite Square Well Potential (optional) Three-Dimensional Infinite Potential Well Particle in a Closed Box Simple Harmonic Oscillator (optional) Barriers and Tunneling Potential Barrier with E > V 0 Potential Barrier with E <V 0 Potential Well Alpha Decay Special Topic: Scanning Probe Microscopes CHAPTER 8 The Hydrogen Atom 167 169 173 173 178 180 180 184 190 194 197 200 204 208 208 211 213 213 215 218 223 225 226 228 234 234 236 239 239 240 243 247 8.1 Application of the Schrödinger Equation to the Hydrogen Atom 247 8.2 Solution of the Schrödinger Equation for Hydrogen (optional) 249
хш Separation of Variables 249 Relation Between the Quantum Numbers and rri( 250 Solution of the Radial Equation 251 Solution of the Angular and Azimuthal Equations 252 8.3 Quantum Numbers 253 Principal Quantum Number n 254 Orbital Angular Momentum Quantum Number 254 Magnetic Quantum Number mg 255 Special Topic: Rydberg Atoms 256 8.4 Magnetic Effects on Atomic Spectra The Normal Zeeman Effect 258 8.5 Intrinsic Spin 262 8.6 Energy Levels and Electron Probabilities (optional) 264 Selection Rules 265 Probability Distribution Functions 267 271 Essay: Indeterminacy and Nonlocality in Quantum Mechanics 274 by David Griffiths Reed College CHAPTER 9 Many-Electron Atoms 278 9.1 9.2 9.3 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table Inert Gases Alkalis Alkaline Earths Halogens Transition Metals Lanthanides Actinides Total Angular Momentum (optional) Single-Electron Atoms Many-Electron Atoms LS, or Russell-Saunders, Coupling jj Coupling Anomalous Zeeman Effect (optional) 278 285 285 285 286 289 289 292 295 298 CHAPTER 10 Statistical Physics 301 10.1 Historical Overview 10.2 Maxwell Velocity Distribution 301 304 10.3 Equipartition Theorem 306 10.4 Maxwell Speed Distribution 309 10.5 Classical and Quantum Statistics 313 Classical Distributions 313 Quantum Distributions 315 10.6 Fermi-Dirac Statistics 317 Introduction to Fermi-Dirac Theory 317 Classical Theory of Electrical Conduction 318 Quantum Theory of Electrical Conduction 320 10.7 Bose-Einstein Statistics 325 Blackbody Radiation 325 Liquid Helium 327 Special Topic: Superfluid 3 He 332 334 CHAPTER 1 1 Molecules and Solids 337 11.1 Molecular Bonding and Spectra 337 Rotational States 339 Vibrational States 340 Vibration and Rotation Combined 342 11.2 Stimulated Emission and Lasers 345 Scientific Applications 350 Holography 351 Other Applications 352 11.3 Structural Properties of Solids 353 11.4 Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Solids 356 Thermal Expansion 356 Thermal Conductivity 358 Magnetic Properties 359 Diamagnetism 360 Paramagnetism 360 Ferromagnetism 362 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism 363 11.5 Superconductivity 363 The Search for a Higher T c 370 Special Topic: Low-Temperature Methods 372 Superconducting Fullerenes 375 11.6 Applications of Superconductivity 377 Josephson Junctions 377 Maglev 378 Generation and Transmission of Electricity 379 Other Scientific and Medical Applications 379 381
xiv Essay: Holography Modern Applications by Tung H. Jeong Lake Forest College CHAPTER 12 Semiconductor Theory and Devices 386 388 Special Topic: Neutrino Detection Gamma Decay 13.8 Radioactive Nuclides Time Dating Using Lead Isotopes Radioactive Carbon Dating Uranium-Thorium Dating 454 458 460 462 463 465 465 12.1 Band Theory of Solids 388 Kronig-Penney Model 390 Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors 392 12.2 Semiconductor Theory 393 Special Topic: The Quantum Hall Effect 396 Thermoelectric Effect 400 12.3 Semiconductor Devices 402 Diodes 403 Bridge Rectifiers 405 Zener Diodes 405 Light Emitting Diodes 405 Photovoltaic Cells 406 Transistors 409 Field Effect Transistors 412 MOSFETs 412 Schotfky Barriers 412 Integrated Circuits 413 415 Essay: Photovoltaic Devices by Lawrence L. Kazmerski National Renewable Energy Laboratory CHAPTER 13 The Atomic Nucleus 13.1 Discovery of the Neutron 13.2 Nuclear Properties Sizes and Shapes of Nuclei Intrinsic Spin Intrinsic Magnetic Moment 13.3 The Deuteron 13.4 Nuclear Forces 13.5 Nuclear Stability Nuclear Models 13.6 Radioactive Decay 13.7 Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Decay Alpha Decay Beta Decay 418 425 425 428 429 432 432 433 435 436 442 444 447 448 452 CHAPTER 14 Nuclear Interactions and Applications 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 Nuclear Reactions Cross Sections Reaction Kinematics Reaction Mechanisms The Compound Nucleus Direct Reactions Fission Fission Reactors Special Topic: Early Fission Reactors 14.6 14.7 Breeder Reactors Fusion Formation of Elements Nuclear Fusion on Earth Controlled Thermonuclear Reactions Special Applications Medicine Archeology Art Special Topic: How to Prove an Art Forgery 14.8 14.9 Crime Detection Agriculture Mining and Oil Materials Industry Small Power Systems New Elements Particle Interactions in Matter (optional) Heavy Charged Particles Electrons Photons Neutrons Radiation Dose and Hazards (optional) 469 469 472 474 476 477 480 481 485 488 490 491 491 493 494 498 499 500 500 502 502 503 504 504 506 507 508 509 509 511 511 513 514 516
xv CHAPTER 1 5 Elementary Particles 521 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 The Early Beginnings The Positron Yukawa's Meson The Fundamental Interactions Classification of Elementary Particles Leptons Hadrons Particles and Lifetimes Conservation Laws and Symmetries Symmetries Quarks Quark Description of Particles Color Confinement Hadron Masses The Families of Matter The Standard Model and GUTs Grand Unifying Theories Accelerators (optional) Special Topic: Experimental Ingenuity 15.9 Synchrotrons Linear Accelerators Fixed-Target Accelerators Colliders Particle Detectors (optional) Gas-Filled Ionization Detectors Scintillation Counters Semiconductors Cherenkov Counters Shower Counters Track Recording Detectors 522 522 524 525 527 528 529 530 532 535 536 537 539 540 540 542 543 545 547 548 550 553 553 554 556 556 557 558 559 559 559 564 CHAPTER 16 Cosmology The Beginning and the End 567 16.1 Evidence of the Big Bang 567 Hubble's Measurements 569 Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation 572 Nucleosynthesis 573 16.2 The Big Bang 575 Special Topic: Planck's Time, Length, and Mass 578 16.3 Stellar Evolution 578 Eventual Fate of Stars 581 16.4 Astronomical Objects Novae and Supernovae 16.5 Problems with the Big Bang Special Topic: Adaptive Optics 16.6 The Future The Demise of the Sun The Future of the Universe? Essay: The Hubble Constant and the Age of the Universe by Robert D. McClure Dominion Astrophysical Observatory, National Research Council, Canada APPENDIX 1 Fundamental Constants APPENDIX 2 Conversion Factors APPENDIX 3 Mathematical Relations APPENDIX 4 Periodic Table of the Elements APPENDIX 5 Mean Values and Distributions APPENDIX 6 Probability Integrals / = x" expl-ax^dx -4) APPENDIX 7 Integrals of the Type x"" 1 dx e -1 APPENDIX 8 Atomic Mass Table APPENDIX 9 Nobel Laureates in Physics Answers to Selected Problems Index 583 587 591 592 596 596 596 600 603 A.1 A.2 A.4 A.5 A.6 A.8 A.10 A.12 A.35 A.41 1.1