Today in Astronomy 142 Star clusters and stellar evolution: The final stages of stellar evolution Observations of stellar evolution: the Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams of open and globular stellar clusters Open clusters M 35 (left) and NGC 2158 (right) in Gemini (Dieter Willasch). 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 1 Late stages of stellar evolution After the maximum mass fraction of the isothermal helium core is exceeded, the star enters the Red giant phase (moving up in H-R diagram) Core collapses: central density and temperature rise. Convection zone extends inward (dredge-up). Stellar radius increases dramatically, from sharp increase in radiation pressure from interior. Radiation pressure now dominates support against the star s weight. Core temperature reaches 10 8 K, and the triple- process, 4 8 0 4 12 0 32He 4Be* 0 2He 6C 20, begins helium fusion. The onset of this process is very rapid in stars with M 2 M, leading to a phenomenon called the helium flash. 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 2 Late stages of stellar evolution (continued) The horizontal branch is the phase after triple- onset. Core helium burning, shell hydrogen burning. The core is on the helium main sequence. (You will explore the properties of the helium main sequence in Homework #4.) 1 10 4 Horizontal branch Luminosity (solar luminos sities) 1 10 3 100 10 1 0.1 4.5 4 3.5 Log of effective temperature (K) Globular cluster M3 Eclipsing binaries Red giants Subgiants (Hydrogen) main sequence 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 3 (c) University of Rochester 1
Nomenclature: spectral type The Harvard spectral type of a star is a classification based upon the strength of absorption lines of several molecules, atoms and ions in its spectrum (Annie J. Cannon, 1901). Generally the types A-M correspond to steady decreases in the strength of hydrogen lines; type O weaker still (emission lines instead of absorption), P for planetary nebulae, Q for miscellany. N was not used. Years later Cecilia Payne (1925) showed that the spectraltype sequence OBAFGKM is a sequence of decreasing temperature, roughly 35000 3500 K. More recently types L, T and Y have been added for brown dwarfs. Examples: ega is an A0 star, the Sun a G2 star, Pollux a K2 star, and Betelgeuse an M2 star. 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 4 Nomenclature: luminosity class At Yerkes Observatory in the 1940s, Morgan, Keenan and Kellman (1943; MKK) added another dimension to classification by introduction of luminosity classes. : main sequence, or dwarf, stars. I: subgiants, brighter than by a magnitude or two for the same spectral type. III: normal giants, another few magnitudes brighter II,I: bright giants and supergiants, yet another few magnitudes brighter. I, II: subdwarfs and white dwarfs. Examples: ega is an A0 star, the Sun is G2, Pollux is K2III, and Betelgeuse is M2I. 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 5 Spectral type, T e, and luminosity class 45000 40000 35000 III I 15 10 Effective temp perature (K) 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 O5 B0 B5 A0 A5 F0 F5 G0 G5 K0 K5M0 M5 Spectral type Data from Schmidt-Kaler 1982 Spectral type 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 6 Absolute bolomet tric magnitude 5 0 5 10 I III 15 O5 B0 B5 A0 A5 F0 F5 G0 G5 K0 K5M0 M5 (c) University of Rochester 2
After the horizontal branch Low mass stars (those with M 2M ): Slowly an isothermal carbon-oxygen core forms in the center as the helium fuel is exhausted. In these stars, however, there is not enough weight to overpower degeneracy pressure, so the core can t collapse and reheat to ignite g carbon-oxygen fusion. Results: H/He burning of outer layers of core, ejection of most of the rest of the star, and formation of a planetary nebula. This phase lasts a few thousand years, during which the ejected gas drifts away. The core becomes a carbon-oxygen white dwarf with mass M 0.6M and initial temperature ~10 8 K. Lasts forever unless it has a close stellar companion. 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 7 After the horizontal branch (continued) Massive stars (those with M 2M ): Asymptotic giant branch (AGB, or supergiant) evolution. Repeated core collapse - fusion reignition - nuclear fuel exhaustion occurs, including silicon fusion to produce iron-peak elements. Radius and luminosity steadily increase, T e decreases. Each of the successive fuel exhaustions is faster than the last. For a 20M star, hydrogen burning (main sequence) lasts 10 7 years helium burning (horizontal branch) lasts 10 6 years carbon burning lasts 300 years oxygen burning lasts 200 days silicon burning lasts 2 days! 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 8 Simulation of stellar evolution from main sequence to AGB Terry Herter s (Cornell) AST 101/103 site, the source of the nice binary-star simulations we ve used, also has a stellarevolution simulator. Have a look here. Results from Terry s simulator, for stars with M 1.5 and 15 M. The tracks take 5.6 Gyr for the lighter star and only 14 Myr for the heavier one. 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 9 (c) University of Rochester 3
What happens when all the nuclear fuel is gone? Most M 2M stars: During the burning of heavier elements, and radiative support of the stellar envelope, stars tend to be hydrodynamically unstable, leading to the loss of large fractions of stars masses: Oscillations: note that t evolution takes stars across the instability strip (lecture, 7 February), which is nearly vertical at effective temperature ~ 5,000K. Stellar winds (see this week s Recitation, and HW#4). This can keep a star s core mass below the SAC limit, and the final states of the star are just like that of less massive ones: planetary nebula phase and white dwarf remnant. 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 10 What happens when all the nuclear fuel is gone? (continued) The most massive stars M 8 M : Mass loss insufficient to keep core in white dwarf range: further collapse and neutronization. Maximum mass of iron white dwarf 1.26 M. When the collapsing core reaches tens-of-km dimensions, neutron degeneracy pressure sets in, and this can stop or slow the collapse. However, since the collapse has been from white-dwarf dimensions to neutron-star dimensions, infalling material from the star s envelope is going very fast: a large fraction of c. It bounces off the stiffened neutron-degenerate material and blows up the rest of the star. 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 11 Core collapse and Type II supernovae This event is called a core collapse, or type II, supernova. How did we get to type II before type I? We ll get to that later in the course, when we talk about the extragalactic distance scale. Remnant: a neutron star ( M 1.3 2.2 M ) or, more rarely, a black hole, depending upon core mass. Artist s conception of a SNII and the formation of a supernova remnant (Chandra/CfA/NASA). 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 12 (c) University of Rochester 4
A SNII forms from a dead, massive star (not drawn to scale) 2 years Star: 6 M, 10 7 km circumference Core: 1.4 M, 10 5 km circumference Core: 10 4 km circumference. Electrons and protons begin combining to form neutrons. 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 13 A SNII forms from a dead, massive star (continued) 1.2 seconds Core: 10 4 km circumference. Electrons and protons begin combining to form neutrons. Core: 75 km circumference, neutron degeneracy pressure sets in. 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 14 A SNII forms from a dead, massive star (continued) Core: 75 km circumference, neutron degeneracy pressure sets in. This makes the core very stiff. Outside of core: still collapsing, moving inwards at about 10 10 cm/s. Bounces off stiff core. 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 15 (c) University of Rochester 5
A SNII forms from a dead, massive star (continued) A few seconds Core: Still 75 km circumference, it is now stable. Outside of core: the rebounding outer-star material explodes the rest of the star. Energy comes from bounce, and from gravitational energy of core. 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 16 About a day A SNII forms from a dead, massive star (continued) Neutron star Expanding supernova shell. ery, very bright for about a month after explosion (can outshine rest of galaxy!). We ll talk about supernova remnants two lectures hence. 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 17 Supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud Before (top; follow the arrow) and after (bottom; guess where) the explosion. SN1987A was the first supernova for which we knew the progenitor star, and was the most recent SN that could be seen with the naked eye. It was a SNII. David Malin, Anglo-Australian Observatory 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 18 (c) University of Rochester 6
Supernova light curves Type I and II supernovae are distinguished observationally by the shape of their luminosity as a function of time (light curve). SNe I decline in brightness by about 01 0.1 mag/day and reach peak absolute magnitudes in the = -18-19 range. SNe II decline more slowly ( 0.05 mag/ day) and have smaller peak absolute magnitudes ( ~ -17). Wikimedia Commons 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 19 Observation of stellar evolution: star clusters Stars tend to form in clusters, with all members within 1-2 My of having the same age. Open clusters (young): low density, irregular, lots of blue stars, low random velocities (few km/sec), hundreds to thousands of stars, not always gravitationally bound. Archetypes: Pleiades (M45), Hyades, h and Persei. Globular clusters (old): high density, spherically symmetrical, few blue stars, higher random velocities (tens of km/sec), millions of stars, gravitationally bound. Archetypes: Centauri, M3, M13, 47 Tucanae. Star clusters are very useful for studying stellar evolution and for determination of distance scales in the universe. 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 20 The (observer s) H-R diagram for clusters The plot of apparent magnitude in the band (backwards) against the color index B- is the classical Hertzsprung- Russell diagram. Plotted in this way such diagrams will resemble our previous logarithmic plots of luminosity vs. effective temperature (backwards). Main sequence L Main sequence B- T e 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 21 (c) University of Rochester 7
Evolution of stars in a cluster Because the measurement of an HR diagram is a snapshot in stellar age terms made in an instant the HR diagram of a cluster does not resemble the tracks in L-T e space followed by individual stars as they age. Instead there will tend to be a turnoff at some point on the main sequence, above which there are no main sequence stars left. All the stars originally on the upper main sequence have moved elsewhere in the HR diagram, with identifiable collections only in the longer-lived stages like the RGB and the horizontal branch. Nice animation of cluster evolution by Leslie Tomley (San Jose State): look here. Does white-dwarf cooling way too fast but is otherwise accurate. 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 22 Evolution of stars in a cluster (continued) c magnitude Bolometric t 0 t 10 7 yrs Bolometric magnitude t 10 9 yrs t 10 8 yrs t 10 10 yrs 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 23 Open clusters: the Pleiades (M45) The Pleiades lie about 135 pc away and are about 110 Myr old. 0 5 10 15 Only main sequence Image: David Malin, Anglo- Australian Observatory 20 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 B- HR diagram of Pleiades X-ray sources (Stauffer et al. 1994) 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 24 (c) University of Rochester 8
Open clusters: the Hyades The Hyades are the closest open cluster (43 pc) and are about 660 Myr old. 0 M M 2 4 6 8 MS A few giants 10-1 0 1 2 B- Hyades Pleiades Image: Hermann Gumpp; HR diagram: Hipparcos (ESA) 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 25 Open clusters: M67 M67 is about 900 pc away and is about 4 10 9 years old; it s the oldest known open cluster. 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 26 8 10 RG 12 14 SG 16 MS 18 MS turnoff 20 22 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 B- Image: Sharp and Hanna (NOAO/AURA/NSF); data: Montgomery, Marschall and Janes (1993) Globular clusters: M3 Like all Galactic globular clusters, M3 is about 12000 Myr old. It lies about 10400 pc away. RR Lyrae stars not plotted (note gap in HB). 12 HB AGB Blue stragglers MS turnoff RG SG MS 24 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 B- Image: Peter Challis (Harvard-Smithsonian CfA); data: Ferarro et al. (1997). 21 February 2013 Astronomy 142, Spring 2013 27 (c) University of Rochester 9