Chemolithoautotrophs: Archaea These critters figured out how to do something incredible. they began taking CO 2 out of the air, and using it to make sugars. The byproduct was OXYGEN.
Stage 7: Paleoproterozoic Oxidation (2.5-1.85 billion years ago) 4,500 mineral species, including 3,000 new oxides/hydroxides/carbonates Negaunee BIF, ~1.9 Ga Rise of oxygenic photosynthesis.
Life made new minerals Approximately 2/3rds of all known mineral species cannot form in an anoxic environment. Most known minerals are thus a consequence of biological activity.
The Rise of Atmospheric Oxygen Kump (2008) Nature 451, 277-278.
Banded Iron Formations Late Archean (2.7-2.5 Ga) Western Australia Karajini National Park
Tom Price mine, Western Australia Fe oxidized from Fe 2+ to Fe 3+ Fe 2+ is soluble but Fe 3+ is not, consequently the Fe in the ocean precipitated in the form of magnetite and hematite.
log f O2 (oxygen fugacity) 0 Copper Minerals Azurite & Malachite -20-40 Cu 2+ Cu 1+ Cuprite -60-80 Cu Metal Native Copper
What was the oxygen level in the Archean Eon? log f O2 > -43 Azurite & Malachite
>400 of 650 Cu Minerals Won t Form Azurite & Malachite Aurichalcite Turquoise Libethenite Linarite Brochthite & Linarite Dioptase
log f O2 (oxygen fugacity) 0 Uranium minerals -20-40 -60 Uranyl (U 6+ ) Uraninite (U 4+ ) Lepersonnite, Studtite,& Curite -80 Uraninite
>220 of 254 U Minerals Won t Form Autunite Fourmarierite & Becquerelite Boltwoodite Lepersonnite, Studtite,& Curite Kasolite & Torbernite
log f O2 (oxygen fugacity) 0-20 Ni 3+ What was the oxygen level in the Archean Eon? Annabergite -40-60 Ni 2+ -80 Nickel Metal Awaruite
>100 of 154 Ni Minerals Won t Form Annabergite Gillardite on Gaspeite Hellyerite & Zaratite Falcondoite & Willemseite Honessite
log f O2 (oxygen fugacity) 0-20 -40-60 MnO 2 (Mn 4+ ) Mn 2 O 3 (Mn 3+ ) Mn 3 O 4 (Mn 3+ & Mn 2+ ) Manganese Minerals Pyrolusite, Romanachite, Birnessite (Mn 4+ ) -80 MnO (Mn 2+ ) Rhodocrosite (Mn 2+ )
log f O2 (oxygen fugacity) 0-20 -40-60 -80 Before the Great Oxidation Event all minerals were restricted to -90 < log f O2 < -60. Only the most reduced mineral species formed.
log f O2 (oxygen fugacity) 0-20 -40-60 -80 After the Great Oxidation Event the redox range of minerals tripled to -90 < log f O2 < 0, thus opening the door for many new minerals. Hence, mineral diversity also tripled.
Stages 6-10: Co-evolution of Earth and Life Changes in Earth s atmospheric composition at ~2.4 to 2.2 billion years ago represent the single most significant factor in our planet s mineralogical diversity. >4600 mineral species
Earth s near-surface oxygenation: Mo & Re in molybdenite (MoS 2 )
RESULTS: Molybdenite (MoS 2 ) through Time Golden et al. (2013), EPSL Another rise in O 2 HERE GOE HERE
Kump (2008) Nature 451, 277-278.
RESULTS: Molybdenite (MoS 2 ) through Time A protracted Great Subsurface Oxidation Interval postdated the GOE by a billion years. This interval was the single most significant factor in Earth s mineralogical diversificiation. No analogous processes occurred on Mars, so Mars s subsurface is anoxic.
Stage 8: The Intermediate Ocean (1.85-0.85 billion years old) >4600 mineral species (few new species) Oxidized surface ocean; Sulfate-reducing microbes.
Stage 9: Snowball Earth and Neoproterozoic Oxidation (850 to 542 million years ago) >4600 mineral species (few new species) Since glaciers were covering much of the Earth and slowing or stopping a lot of surface processes, not many new minerals appeared. Glacial cycles triggered by albedo feedback.
Stage 10: Phanerozoic Biomineralization (Less than 542 million years old) >4,900 mineral species (biominerals, clays) Life figured out how to produce some additional minerals, and the hydration of pre-existing minerals produced some new clay minerals.
Stage 10: Phanerozoic Biomineralization (<0.542 billion years old) >4,900 mineral species Carbonate made by mollusks Hazenite made from bacterial poop Silica made by diatoms Tinnunculite made from falcon poop
Stage 10: Phanerozoic Biomineralization Abelsonite NiC 31 H 32 N 4 Ravatite C 24 H 48 Evankite C 24 H 48 Dashkovaite Mg(HCOO) 2. 2H 2 O Oxammite (NH 4 )(C 2 O 4 ). H 2 O > 50 Organic Mineral Species
The Rise of the Terrestrial Biosphere First extensive production of terrestrial clay minerals
The Rise of the Terrestrial Biosphere Roots, worms, fungi, and other biological activity produced new clay minerals Rhynie Chert (~410 million years old)
The Supercontinent Cycle
RESULTS: The Supercontinent CYCLE The distribution of zircon crystals through time correlates with the supercontinent cycle over the past 3 billion years. (Condie & Aster 2010; Hawksworth et al. 2010)
RESULTS: Mo Mineral Evolution Temporal distribution of molybdenite (MoS 2 ) Golden et al. (2013), EPSL
Hg Mineral Evolution The distribution of mercury (Hg) minerals through time also correlates with the SC cycle over the past 3 billion years, but there s a gap during the boring billion. Hazen et al. (2012) Amer. Mineral. 97, 1013-42.
Hg Mineral Evolution The largest spike in mercury minerals occurred about 300 million years ago.
Hg Mineral Evolution This maximum occurs at the same time as maximum coal deposition.
Mercury Minerals and the Rise of the Terrestrial Biosphere Native Mercury Cinnabar
RECENT CONCLUSIONS Previously unrecognized patterns in the distribution of minerals through Earth history reflect: Metal ore formation and the supercontinent cycle Changing ocean chemistry The rise of the terrestrial biosphere
The Story of Earth CONCLUSIONS Earth has transformed repeatedly, evolving over 4.5 billion years, and it continues to change today. Life and rocks have co-evolved as a consequence of many positive and negative feedbacks.