PREFACE You will find this book interesting: Chemistry concepts presented in a diagrammatic form. Specially written to ease learning and to stimulate interest in Chemistry, this book will help students in acquiring and reinforcing Chemistry concepts, and especially the difficult ones, more easily and effectively. This book makes learning easier through the following features: Learning Outcomes Learning outcomes on the header point out the concepts that you should focus on in the process of learning. Important Concepts and Key Terms The important concepts and key terms are presented clearly in simple language. Further explanations linked to the diagrams help you better understand the concepts. Interesting Visuals Visual aids such as concept maps, flow charts and annotated diagrams are integrated to make the concepts easier to understand and remember. Real-life examples These examples show real-life application of concepts and explain the inquiries on the phenomena that happen in our everyday lives. Worked Examples Step-by-step worked examples help to reinforce your skills in solving problems involving calculations. Instant Facts These are extra information that can help you acquire a more in-depth understanding of the topic under discussion. This book complements the school curriculum and will certainly help in your preparation for the examinations. The Editorial Team
CONTENTS The Periodic Table of Elements Section 1: Experimental Chemistry 1 Introduction to Chemistry 1 1.1 Understanding Chemistry and Its Importance 2 1.2 Analysing Scientific Method 5 2 Experimental Chemistry 1 2.1 Understanding Measurement 7 2.2 Describing Methods of Purification and Analysis 8 Section 2: Atomic Structure and Stoichiometry 3 The Structure of the Atom 16 3.1 Understanding Matter 18 3.2 Describing the Atomic Structure 2 3.3 Defining Isotopes 27 3. Realizing the Importance of Isotopes 28 3.5 Describing the Electronic Structure of an Atom 29 The Mole Concept, Chemical Formulae and Equations 16.1 Defining Relative Atomic Mass and Relative Molecular Mass 30.2 Relating the Mole and the Number of Particles 31.3 Relating the Mole and the Mass of Substances 32. Relating the Mole and the Volume of Gas 33.5 Determining Chemical Formulae 35.6 Constructing Chemical Equations 37 5 Chemical Bonds 17 5.1 Describing Formation of Compounds 39 5.2 Forming Ionic Bonds 0 5.3 Forming Covalent Bonds 3 5. Comparing the Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds 7 5.5 Forming Metallic Bonds 5 5.6 Summarising Properties of Ionic, Covalent and Metallic Structures 55
Section 3: Chemistry of Reactions 6 Electrolysis 56 6.1 Understanding Electrolytes and Non-electrolytes 61 6.2 Understanding Electrolytic Cell 62 6.3 Describing Electrolysis of Molten Compounds 63 6. Describing Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions 6 6.5 Applying Electrolysis in Industries 66 6.6 Understanding Voltaic Cells 68 6.7 Comparing Electrolytic and Voltaic Cells 72 6.8 Constructing the Electrochemical Series 73 7 Energy From Chemicals 56 7.1 Describing Exothermic Reactions 75 7.2 Describing Endothermic Reactions 77 7.3 Understanding Bond Forming and Bond Breaking 79 7. Understanding Hydrogen as a Potential Fuel 80 8 Speed of Reaction 57 8.1 Understanding Speed of Reaction 81 8.2 Explaining Factors That Affect the Speed of Reaction 8 8.3 Understanding Collision Theory 90 8. Investigating the Effect of a Given Variable on the Speed of a Reaction 96 9 Redox 58 9.1 Identifying Redox Reactions 103 9.2 Comparing Redox Reactions in Electrolytic and Chemical Cells 116 9.3 Applying Redox Reactions 120 10 Acids and Bases 59 10.1 Understanding Acids and Bases 121 10.2 Understanding the Strength of Acids and Alkalis 125 10.3 Determining Concentration of Acids and Alkalis 128 10. Describing Neutralisation 131 10.5 Stating the Uses of Sulphuric Acid 138 11 Salts 60 11.1 Understanding Salts 139 11.2 Suggesting Methods of Preparing Salts 11 11.3 Describing Qualitative Analysis of Salts 18 12 Ammonia 60 12.1 Understanding Ammonia 158 12.2 Describing the Manufacture of Ammonia 160
Section : Periodicity 13 The Periodic Table 161 13.1 Understanding the Periodic Table 162 13.2 Describing the Periodic Patterns 16 13.3 Understanding the Group I Elements 166 13. Understanding the Group VII Elements 169 13.5 Understanding the Group 0 Elements 173 1 Metals 161 1.1 Understanding Metals and Alloys 176 1.2 Understanding the Reactivity Series of Metals 179 1.3 Describing the Extraction of Iron 185 1. Describing the Rusting of Iron 187 Section 5: Atmosphere 15 Air 190 15.1 Describing the Composition of Air 191 15.2 Discussing the Sources and Effects of Atmospheric Pollutants 192 15.3 Understanding Acid Rain 193 15. Describing Carbon Cycle 19 15.5 Understanding Greenhouse Effect 195 Section 6: Organic Chemistry 16 Organic Compounds 196 16.1 Understanding Organic Compounds 197 16.2 Understanding Fuels and Crude Oil 198 16.3 Understanding Homologous Series 199 16. Understanding Alkanes 200 16.5 Understanding Alkenes 203 16.6 Describing Hydrogenation 207 16.7 Comparing Alkanes and Alkenes 208 16.8 Identifying Isomers 209 16.9 Understanding Alcohols 211 16.10 Understanding Carboxylic Acids 21 16.11 Understanding Esters 216 16.12 Describing Polymerisation 219
H 1 1 Hydrogen Li 3 7 Lithium Na 11 23 Sodium K 19 39 Potassium Rb 37 85 Rubidium Cs 55 133 Caesium He 2 Helium Ne 10 20 Neon Ar 18 0 Argon Kr 36 8 Krypton Xe 5 131 Xenon Rn 86 222 Radon Fr 87 223 Francium 1 I 0 2 II III IV V VI VII Transition elements 3 5 6 7 Be 9 Beryllium Mg 12 2 Magnesium Ca 20 0 Calcium Sr 38 88 Strontium Ba 56 137 Barium B 5 11 Boron Al 13 27 Aluminium Ga 31 70 Gallium In 9 115 Indium Tl 81 20 Thallium C 6 12 Carbon Si 1 28 Silicon Ge 32 73 Germanium Sn 50 119 Tin Pb 82 207 Lead N 7 1 Nitrogen P 15 31 Phosphorus As 33 75 Arsenic Sb 51 122 Antimony Bi 83 209 Bismuth O 8 16 Oxygen S 16 32 Sulphur Se 3 79 Selenium Te 52 128 Tellurium Po 8 210 Polonium F 9 19 Fluorine Cl 17 35.5 Chlorine Br 35 80 Bromine I 53 127 Iodine At 85 210 Astatine Ra 88 226 Radium Cr 2 52 Chromium Mo 2 96 Molybdenum W 7 18 Tungsten Sg 106 262 Seaborgium Mn 25 55 Manganese Tc 3 98 Technetium Re 75 186 Rhenium Bh 107 262 Bohrium Fe 26 56 Iron Ru 101 Ruthenium Os 76 190 Osmium Hs 108 265 Hassium Co 27 59 Cobalt Rh 5 103 Rhodium Ir 77 192 Iridium Mt 109 266 Meitnerium Ni 28 59 Nickel Pd 6 106 Palladium Pt 78 195 Platinum Ds 110 281 Darmstadtium Cu 29 6 Copper Ag 7 108 Silver Au 79 197 Gold Uuu 111 272 Zn 30 65 Zinc Cd 8 112 Cadmium Hg 80 201 Mercury Uub 112 277 V 23 51 Vanadium Nb 1 93 Niobium Ta 73 181 Tantalum Db 105 260 Dubnium Ti 22 8 Titanium Zr 0 91 Zirconium Hf 72 178 Hafnium Rf 10 257 Rutherfordium Sc 21 5 Scandium Y 39 89 Yttrium La 57 139 Lanthanum Ac 89 227 Actinium Ce 58 10 Cerium Pr 59 11 Praeseodymiun Yb 70 173 Ytterbium Lu 71 175 Lutetium Eu 63 152 Europium Gd 6 157 Gadolinium Tb 65 159 Terbium Dy 66 162 Dysprosium Ho 67 165 Holmium Er 68 167 Erbium Tm 69 169 Thulium Sm 62 150 Samarium Pm 61 17 Promethium Nd 60 1 Neodymium Th 90 232 Thorium Lanthanides Actinides Metal Key: Semi-metal Non-metal Pa 91 231 Protactinium No 102 25 Nobelium Lr 103 257 Lawrencium Am 95 23 Americium Cm 96 27 Curium Bk 97 27 Berkelium Cf 98 29 Californium Es 99 25 Einsteinium Fm 100 25 Fermium Md 101 256 Mendelevium Pu 9 22 Plutonium Np 93 237 Neptunium U 92 238 Uranium He 2 Helium Proton number Name of the element Symbol of the element Relative atomic mass The Periodic Table of Elements The Periodic Table of Elements
1.1 Understanding Chemistry and Its Importance What is Chemistry? Laboratories Chemicals The study of the composition, structure, properties and interactions of matter Chemistry Paper Food Common chemicals around us Medicines Stones 2
1.1 Understanding Chemistry and Its Importance Chemistry Related Careers Biochemist Aqua culturist Bacteriologist Pharmacists Engineer Pathologist Chemistry Related Careers Nutritionist Horticulturist Scientist Geologist Food technologist Doctor INSTANT FACTS The chemistry related career that involves the study of growing flowers, fruit or vegetables is horticulturist. The chemistry related career that involves the study of the origin, history and structure of Earth is geologist. 3
1.1 Understanding Chemistry and Its Importance The Contributions of Chemistry-based Industries Improve health and standard of living Contribute to economy of the country The Contributions of Chemistry-based Industries Provide jobs to people Support other industries INSTANT FACTS Chemical industries play an important role in the development of our country. These industries include steel industries, food industries, water treatment industries and polymer industries. The contributions of chemistry-based industries in our country include creating job opportunities, increasing export earning, improving health and standard of living and support other industries.
1.2 Analysing Scientific Method 1 Making observation Gather information about a phenomenon by using the five senses 2 Making inference Make a smart guess or a tentative explanation about a phenomenon based on the observation 3 Identifying problem Ask questions based on the inference made Making hypothesis Make a general statement about the relationship between a manipulated variable and responding variable 5 Identifying variables Identify the manipulated variable, responding variable and fixed variable of an experiment to test the hypothesis made 6 Controlling variables Decide how to manipulate the chosen variable, what to measure and how to keep the fixed variable constant 7 Planning an experiment Determine the materials and apparatus to be used, the procedure of the experiment, the method of collecting data and the methods to analyse and interpret the collected data 8 Collecting data Make observations or measurement and record the data systematically 9 Interpreting data Organise and analyse data. Do calculations and draw graphs or charts to find any relationship between the variables 10 Making conclusion Make a statement about the outcome of the experiment and whether the hypothesis is accepted or rejected 11 Writing report Communicate the details of the experiment to spread and find a benefit to the findings 6