Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Dissertations Graduate College 8-1980 Creating Deviance: The Collective Stigmatization of Cigarette Smoking Ronald Jay Troyer Western Michigan University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations Part of the Sociology Commons Recommended Citation Troyer, Ronald Jay, "Creating Deviance: The Collective Stigmatization of Cigarette Smoking" (1980). Dissertations. 2603. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/2603 This Dissertation-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact maira.bundza@wmich.edu.
CREATING DEVIANCE: THE COLLECTIVE STIGMATIZATION OF CIGARETTE SMOKING R onald Ja y T ro y e r A D i s s e r t a t i o n S u b m itte d to th e F a c u lty o f The G r a d u a te C o lle g e i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r th e D e g ree o f D o c to r o f P h ilo s o p h y Departm ent of Sociology W e ste rn M ic h ig a n U n iv e r s ity K alam azoo, M ich ig an A u g u st 1980
CREATING DEVIANCE: THE COLLECTIVE STIGMATIZATION OF CIGARETTE SMOKING R onald J a y T r o y e r, P h.d. W e ste rn M ic h ig a n U n i v e r s ity, 1980 T h is s tu d y fo c u s e d on th e c h a n g in g norm s r e g a r d in g c i g a r e t t e sm o k in g. B anned by a num ber o f s t a t e s i n th e e a r l y.1930s, th e b e h a v io r w as s o c i a l l y and l e g a l l y a c c e p te d d u r in g th e 1 9 3 0 s, 1 9 4 0 s, and 1950s o n ly to o n ce a g a in becom e th e o b j e c t o f p u b l i c a p p r o b a tio n and o f f i c i a l s a n c ti o n s i n th e 1 9 7 0 s. E xam ining e v e n ts i n b o th tim e p e r io d s, t h i s r e s e a r c h a tte m p te d to d e te rm in e how an d why t h i s b e h a v io r came to b e d e f in e d a s d e v i a n t. In e x p la in in g th e n e g a t iv e p u b l i c a t t i t u d e s to w a rd and o f f i c i a l r e s t r i c t i o n s o f th e h a b i t some c o m m en ta to rs had c i t e d th e m e d ic a l e v id e n c e t h a t sm oking h a s d e l e t e r i o u s h e a l t h c o n se q u e n c e s w h ile o t h e r s h ad s u g g e s te d t h a t a n ti- s m o k in g s t r i c t u r e s w e re th e p ro d u c t o f s t a t u s b a t t l e s b e tw e e n sm o k ers and n o n sm o k e rs. T h ese two e x p la n a tio n s w e re i n t e r p r e t e d a s a p p r o x im a tin g two t h e o r e t i c a l fram ew o rk s found in s o c i o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e. The m e d ic a l e x p la n a tio n w as s e e n a s r e p r e s e n ti n g th e s t r a i n m odel o f f e r e d by s o c i a l f a c t i s t s c h o la r s w h ile th e s t a t u s g ro u p c o n f l i c t v iew m ore c l o s e l y re s e m b le s th e s o c i a l d e f i n i t i o n i s t a p p ro a c h to s o c i a l phenom ena. S t r a i n, d e f in e d a s a d is c r e p a n c y among t h e s y s te m s e le m e n ts, was s e e n a s p r e s e n t when r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s c la im e d t h a t an a c c e p ta b le b e h a v io r p a t t e r n w as h a r m f u l to h e a l t h. The s t r a i n m o d el s u g g e s te d t h a t th e in c r e a s e i n r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s le d to th e r e d e f i n i t i o n o f c i g a r e t t e sm o k in g. By.
c o n tra s t, th e s ta tu s group c o n flic t model suggested th a t the re d e fin i tio n of c ig a re tte smoking was th e product of in te r e s t group in te ra c t i o n. These two ex p la n atio n s were ev alu ated through a n a ly sis of governm ent d o c u m e n ts, i n t e r e s t g ro u p p u b l i c a t i o n s, p u b l i c o p in io n s u rv e y d a t a, m ass m ed ia r e c o r d s, and p e r s o n a l in t e r v i e w d a t a. The f in d i n g s f o r th e e a r l y 1900s and th e c u r r e n t c o n tr o v e r s y i n d i c a t e t h a t in b o th tim e p e r io d s, h e a l t h a l l e g a t i o n s a g a i n s t th e c i g a r e t t e w e re p ro m in e n t. Y et in b o th i n s t a n c e s, th e s e a l l e g a t i o n s w e re n o t s u f f i c i e n t to b r i n g a b o u t new r e s t r i c t i o n s. O nly a f t e r s p e c i f i c i n t e r e s t g ro u p s to o k up th e c a u s e and u se d th e h e a l th arg u m e n t to s u p p o r t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s was sm oking d e f in e d a s i n a p p r o p r i a t e. In te rm s o f th e s t r a i n and s t a t u s g ro u p c o n f l i c t m o d e ls, t h i s s tu d y found n e i t h e r o n e to b e a c o m p le te e x p l a n a t i o n. W h ile s t r a i n c l e a r l y w as n o t d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e r e d e f i n i t i o n o f sm oking a s d e v i a n t, i t w as a l s o c l e a r t h a t i n t e r e s t g ro u p s w e re a b le to r e a l i z e th e r e s t r i c t i o n s b e c a u s e o f th e e x i s t e n c e o f s t r a i n. In o t h e r w o rd s, t h i s s tu d y show s t h a t s t r a i n w as th e n e c e s s a r y c o n d itio n w h ile i n t e r e s t g ro u p s t a k in g up th e c a u s e p r o v id e d th e s u f f i c i e n t c o n d itio n s f o r th e d e f i n i t i o n o f sm oking a s d e v i a n t. A t th e sam e tim e i t w as n o te d t h a t th e p ro -sm o k in g f o r c e s w e re a b le t o h a v e th e r e s t r i c t i v e m e a su re s o f th e e a r l y 1900s r e v e r s e d by m a r s h a llin g a d d i t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s i n th e 1 9 2 0 s. In c o n c lu s io n i t was s u g g e s te d t h a t s i m i l a r d e v e lo p m e n ts seem to b e o c c u r r in g to d a y a s th e to b a c c o in d u s tr y h a s b eg u n to m o b iliz e m ore r e s o u r c e s i n th e c o n f l i c t.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS T h is w ork c o u ld n o t h a v e b e e n c o m p le te d w ith o u t th e a d v ic e, en c o u ra g e m e n t, and s u p p o r t o f many p e r s o n s. The i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n te n t was g r e a t l y im proved by d o c t o r a l c o m m itte e c o n t r i b u t i o n s. S p e c i f i c a l l y I w an t t o th a n k Jam es P e t e r s e n f o r c a r e f u l l y r e a d in g and o f f e r i n g o f num erous e d i t o r i a l s u g g e s t i o n s, R o n ald ' K ram er f o r many i n s i g h t f u l d i s c u s s i o n s w ith r e g a r d to th e c o l l e c t i v e d e f i n i t i o n o f d e v ia n c e a r e a, J o se p h E l l i n f o r h i s a id i n c l a r i f y i n g t h e o r e t i c a l i d e a s, and P a u l F r id a y f o r t a k i n g tim e from a b u sy s c h e d u le to s e r v e as a com m ittee member. A v e r y s p e c i a l th a n k s g o e s to th e d i s s e r t a t i o n c o m m itte e c h a i r m an, G e ra ld E. M a rk le. N ot o n ly d id p r o f e s s o r M ark le g iv e u n s t i n t i n g l y o f h i s tim e i n r e a d in g and c r i t i q u i n g n um erous p r o p o s a ls and d r a f t s b u t h e a l s o p ro v id e d s u b s t a n t i a l e n c o u ra g e m e n t and s u p p o r t f o r th e a u t h o r 's e f f o r t s. C e r t a in l y, t h i s s tu d y w ould n o t h a v e b ee n c o m p le te d w ith o u t h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n. F i n a l l y, I w is h to e x p r e s s a d eep s e n s e o f a p p r e c i a t i o n to my f a m ily. W ith o u t my d a u g h e r E l i z a b e t h 's c o o p e r a tio n and u n d e r s ta n d in g t h i s w ork w ould h a v e b ee n an im p o s s ib le t a s k. A v e r y s p e c i a l debt is owned to my w ife Susan. W ithout her co n stan t su p p o rt, enc o u ra g e m e n t, and p e r s o n a l s a c r i f i c e s, t h i s s tu d y w ould n e v e r h a v e b eg u n. R o n ald J a y T ro y e r i i
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8024819 Troyer, Ronald Jay CREATING DEVIANCE: CIGARETTE SMOKING THE COLLECTIVE STIGMATIZATION OF Western Michigan University Ph.D. 1980 University Microfilms international 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106 18 Bedford Row, London WC1R 4EJ, England
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... i i LIST OF TABLES.......... v i LIST OF F I G U R E S... v i i C h a p te r I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM... 1 I I. ' THEORETICAL ORIENTATIONS... 9 C o ll e c t i v e B e h a v io r and D e v ia n c e : T r a d i t i o n a l A p p r o a c h e s...'... 9 C o lle c tiv e B ehavior and D eviance: New D ire ctio n s. 15 O r g a n iz a tio n s... 17 S o c io lo g y o f L aw -C rim in o lo g y... 19 D e f i n i t i o n s o f D e v ia n c e... 21 T h e o r e t i c a l I s s u e s... 24 R e s e a rc h Q u e s tio n s... 26 I I I. REVIEW OF THE EMPIRICAL LITERATURE... 29 H e a lth - R e la te d R e d e f i n itio n s..., 29 D e f i n i t i o n s o f C r i m in a l it y... 31 S m o k i n g... 35 M ethods U s e d... 36 Summary o f E m p ir ic a l L i t e r a t u r e... 37 IV. M ETH O D S........... 40 D ocum entary R e s e a rc h... 40 D a ta S o u r c e s...43 i i i
F o c u s in g th e R e s e a rc h... 49 A n a l y s i s... -... 59 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES: CHANGING DEFINITIONS... 61 D iscovery of Tobacco to the L ate N ineteenth C entury 61 E urope... 61 U n ite d S ta t e s... 63 Saving A m erica 's Youth: The A n ti- C ig a re tte Crusade B e fo re W orld War I...... 64 D e f i n it i o n s and Themes... 64 A n t i - C i g a r e tt e F o rc e s... 67. P r o - C i g a r e t te F o rc e s... 73 C ig a r e tt e s and P a t r i o t is m... 75 C o ffin N a ils and Women: The P o st-w o rld War I A n t i - C i g a r e tt e C ru sa d e.... 76 D e f i n it i o n s and Themes... 76 P o stw a r A n t i - C i g a r e tt e F o rc e s... 78 P o stw a r P ro -S m o k in g F o rc e s i 81 C o n c l u s i o n... 83 INTRODUCING STRAIN: THE HEALTH CONNECTION... 86 F i n d i n g s...- 87 Some F u r t h e r C o n s id e r a tio n s... 98 D i s c u s s i o n... 101 CREATING EVIL: THE ANTI-SMOKING MOVEMENT... 105 A n ti-s m o k in g G roups.... 106 H e a lth O r g a n iz a tio n s... 106 G overnm ent B o d ie s........... 118 L e g a l A c tio n G r o u p s... 125 iv
C o n c l u s i o n... 135 V I II. MAINTAINING RESPECTABILITY: THE PRO-SMOKING FORCES.. 139 The S e t t in g : A P o w e rfu l I n d u s t r y... 140 F a r m e r s... 140 M a n u f a c tu re rs.... 141 O th e r T obacco R e la te d B u s in e s s e s... 142 G o v e rn m e n t... 144 The I n d u s tr y R esponds to th e C h a l l e n g e... 145 C o u n c il f o r T obacco R e s e a rc h..... 145 T obacco I n s t i t u t e...... 149 C o n c l u s i o n...... 163 IX. CONCLUSION... 166 Summary o f F i n d i n g s... 166 I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r T h eo ry... 175 L i m it a ti o n s o f th e S t u d y... 177 A L arger Issu e : " W affling" Between two Paradigm s. 181 FO O TN O TES... I 87 BIBLIOGRAPHY... 197
LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1 Sources of D ata Used in S tudying the C o lle c tiv e D e f i n it i o n o f Smoking.... 44 2 F ed eral Government. D ecisions on C ig a re tte s and C ig a r e t t e Smoking... 51 3 Sm all C ig a re tte Consumption by D ecades, 1870 to 1930.. 65 4 H e a lth O r g a n iz a tio n C la im s t h a t C i g a r e tt e Smoking C auses D is e a s e, 1954-1978 108 5 P u b lic P e r c e p tio n o f H e a lth C la im s A g a in s t C i g a r e tt e s. 110 6 A c tio n s P ro p o se d by H e a lth G roups on Smoking and C i g a r e t t e s... 113 7 C la im s T h a t C i g a r e t t e Smoking i s th e C ause o f D is e a s e, 1954-1 9 7 8 120 8 S ubject of M ajor Item s in ASH N ew sletters by Y ear, 1 9 7 1-1 9 7 8 9 ASH F in a n c ia l R esources and E x p enditures, 1969-1979.. 130.10 ASH A c tiv itie s, 1967-1979 133 11 C i g a r e t t e M a n u f a c tu r e r s ' R evenue From th e S a le o f Tobacco P ro d u cts, 1974-1978 143 12 C ouncil fo r Tobacco R esearch 's Claim s in th e New Y ork T i m e s... 148 13 T obacco I n s t i t u t e C la im s i n th e New Y ork T i m e s... 152 14 S u b je c t o f Ite m s i n th e T obacco News, 1 9 5 9-1964.... 153 15 Tobacco I n s titu te S ta ffin g a t Five Year In te rv a ls, 1960-1 9 8 0 156 16 S ubjpct C ontent of Tobacco O bserver Item s, 1976-1979.. 159
LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1 Index M edicus Item s and the D e fin itio n o f C ig a re tte Smoking a s D e v ia n t...... 89 2 New York Times Item s and the D e fin itio n of C ig a re tte Smoking a s D e v i a n t... 91 3 R e a d e r 's G uide Ite m s and t h e D e f i n it i o n o f ' C ig a r e tt e Smoking a s D e v i a n t... 94 4. Index M edicus, New York Tim es, and R ead er 's Guide Ite m s and th e D e f i n it i o n o f C ig a r e tt e Sm oking a s D e v ia n t 97 5 S tr a i n M e a s u re s, P u b lic B e l i e f t h a t Smoking C au ses C ancer, and D e fin itio n of C ig a re tte Smoking as D eviant. 100 6 B a t t l e O ver th e I n i t i a l D e f i n it i o n o f C ig a r e tt e s.... 168 7 R e d e f i n itio n o f C ig a r e t t e s : The Second A n t i - C i g a r e t t Q M o v e m e n t...,... 169 8 Model P o rtray in g th e R ed e fin itio n of C ig a re tte Smoking. 173
CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF PROBLEM " L a s t y e a r sm oking was a m a jo r f a c t o r i n 2 2 0,0 0 0 d e a th s from h e a r t d i s e a s e ; 7 8,0 0 0 lu n g c a n c e r d e a th s ; and 2 2,0 0 0 d e a th s from o t h e r c a n c e r s... " Jo s e p h A. C a lif a n o, J r. F orm er S e c r e ta r y o f HEW " I t h i n k we w ould b e b e t t e r o f f i f t h e r e w e re no c i g a r e t t e s i n th e U.S. I w ould l i k e to s e e them b an n e d by C o n g re s s." D r. B enjam in Byrd P a s t P r e s i d e n t o f th e American Cancer S ociety "The a n ti- s m o k in g z e a l t h a t i s w id e ly t r a n s l a t i n g i n t o l e g i s l a t i o n i s a b r i l l i a n t -exam ple o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n r e c t i t u d e a m a n a c lin g o f th e i n d i v id u a l f o r h i s own g o o d." W a sh in g to n S ta r E d i t o r i a l T h is d i s s e r t a t i o n i s a s tu d y o f th e c o n tr o v e r s y o v e r c i g a r e t t e smoking norm s: should c ig a re tte smoking be defined as p erm issib le o r ev e n a c c e p ta b le, a s i t was i n th e 1 9 5 0 s; o r s h o u ld i t b e d e f in e d a s in a p p r o p r i a t e and s e v e r e l y r e s t r i c t e d, a s i t was in th e e a r l y 20th century and m ight be in the near fu tu re? D u rin g r e c e n t y e a r s b o th p u b l i c a t t i t u d e s and o f f i c i a l a c t io n s h av e becom e i n c r e a s i n g l y a n t i - c i g a r e t t e sm o k in g. HEW s p o n s o re d s u rv e y s h a v e found t h a t o v e r 80 p e r c e n t o f nonsm o k ers th i n k th e sm oking o f c i g a r e t t e s s h o u ld b e a llo w e d i n fe w e r p l a c e s th a n i t i s now, o v e r 60 p e r c e n t t h in k c i g a r e t t e a d v e r t i s i n g s h o u ld b e b a n n e d, a lm o s t 85 p e r c e n t f e e l t h a t t e a c h e r s s h o u ld s e t a good exam ple by n o t sm o k in g, and a p p r o x im a te ly 80 p e r c e n t f i n d i t a n n o y in g to be n e a r a p e r s o n who i s sm oking (HEW, 1976b). By.1.977 some 41 s t a t e s h ad e n a c te d l e g i s l a t i o n r e s t r i c t i n g sm oking i n su ch p la c e s a s on p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a t i o n, r e s t a u r a n t s, p u b l i c s c h o o ls, h e a l t h c a r e 1
2 f a c i l i t i e s, d e p a rtm e n t s t o r e s, e n t e r t a i n m e n t and r e c r e a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s, e l e v a t o r s, and s ta te - o w n e d b u i l d in g s (HEW, 1 9 7 7 ). At th e f e d e r a l l e v e l r e g u l a t i o n s h a v e r e le g a t e d th e sm oker to th e r e a r o f i n t e r s t a t e p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a t i o n v e h i c le s and fo rm e r S e c r e ta r y o f HEW C a lif a n o la u n c h e d a n a n ti- s m o k in g cam paign c h a r a c t e r i z i n g sm oking a s slo w m o tio n s u i c i d e. A t th e sam e tim e p ro -s m o k in g f o r c e s a r e b e g in n in g to r e s i s t su c h n e g a t iv e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s and r e s t r i c t i v e r u l e s. C la im in g t h a t t h e g o v ern m e n t h a s no b u s in e s s r e g u l a t i n g th e p r i v a t e h a b i t s o f f r e e i n d i v i d u a l s, th e p ro -s m o k in g f o r c e s s p e n t o v e r $6 m i ll i o n to h e lp d e f e a t an a n ti- s m o k in g re fe r e n d u m i n C a l i f o r n i a (M a rk le and T r o y e r, 1 9 7 9 ). B a s i c a lly t h i s " fre e d o m o f c h o ic e " arg u m e n t a s s e r t s t h a t t h e r e i s no p r o o f t h a t to b a c c o smoke i s h a r m f u l to n o n sm o k ers. C o n s e q u e n tly, th e sm oker h a s th e p e r s o n a l r i g h t to en g a g e in h i s p l e a s u r e (T obacco I n s t i t u t e, 1 9 7 8 :2 5 ). E m p h asizin g t h i s th em e, th e to b a c c o i n d u s tr y h a s form ed th e T obacco A c tio n N etw ork w ith f o u r r e g io n a l o f f i c e s and e i g h t e e n s t a t e d i r e c t o r s to f i g h t f u r t h e r r e s tr ic tio n s on smoking (Tobacco O bserver, December, 1979:3 ). I n d i s c u s s i n g t h i s s o c i a l phenom enon, m o st c o m m en ta to rs h av e i n t e r p r e t e d th e sm oking c o n tr o v e r s y from a m e d ic a l fram ew o rk ( S o b e l, 1 9 7 8 ; W h ite s id e, 1 9 7 1 ; and W agner, 1 9 7 1 ). S in c e s c i e n t i s t s c la im t o h a v e d e m o n s tra te d t h a t sm oking c a u s e s c a n c e r and o th e r d i s e a s e s, th e c o e r c i v e r e g u l a t i o n s, la w s, and p u b l i c a t t i t u d e s a r e a t t r i b u t e d to th e d e f e n s i v e b e h a v io r o f th e nonsm olcer. C onvin ced t h a t sm oking i s a h e a l t h.h a z a rd f o r a l l p e o p le, a b s t a i n e r s a r e sim p ly a s s e r t i n g t h e i r r i g h t to h e a l t h and lo n g l i f e. A t th e same tim e, t h e p r o -
3 sm oking f o r c e s a r e s e e n a s b e in g le d by an i n d u s tr y i n t e r e s t e d in p r o t e c t i n g p r o f i t s. The m e d ic a l i s s u e a p p e a rs to b e an im p o r ta n t e le m e n t s i n c e o v e r 90 p e r c e n t o f th e p u b l i c a c c e p ts th e c la im t h a t sm oking i s h a rm fu l (G a llu p, 1 9 7 8 ). At th e same tim e i t i s c l e a r t h a t n o t a l l b e h a v io r and p r o d u c ts b e lie v e d to b e h a r m f u l to h e a l t h, f o r e x a m p le c o f f e e and s o ft d rin k s, have been r e s tr ic te d or become the focus of negat i v e p u b lic a t t i t u d e s. F u rth e rm o re, th e m e d ic a l m odel d o e s n o t e x p l a in th e p e r io d i c e s c a l a t i o n o f th e c o n tr o v e r s y. I t i s d i f f i c u l t to i d e n t i f y any new m e d ic a l f i n d i n g s w h ich le d HEW S e c r e ta r y C alifano to launch h is anti- sm oking program or led th e C iv il Aeronaut i c s B oard t o c o n s id e r b a n n in g sm oking on a l l a i r p l a n e f l i g h t s. R e je c tin g th e m e d ic a l m odel e x p l a n a t i o n, some s o c i o l o g i s t s (N u e h rin g and M a r k le, 1 9 7 4, and M ark le and T r o y e r, 1979) h a v e a rg u e d t h a t th e a n ti- s m o k in g p u b l i c a t t i t u d e s and o f f i c i a l a c t io n s a r e b e t t e r u n d e r s to o d a s p r o d u c ts o f s t a t u s b a t t l e s b etw e en v e s te d i n t e r e s t s. W h ile n o t d e n y in g t h a t th e h e a l t h i s s u e h a s p la y e d an im p o r ta n t r o l e i n t h e c o n tr o v e r s y, th e y a r g u e t h a t s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s h a v e b e e n m o st d e c i s i v e i n s h a p in g th e sm oking c o n tr o v e r s y. A c c o rd in g to t h e i r v ie w, sm o k ers and n o n sm o k ers s h o u ld be s e e n a s members of two s ta tu s groups in c o n f lic t over " th e c o lle c tiv e conf e r r a l o f le g itim a c y and c o n s e q u e n t p r e s t i g e " (M a rk le and T r o y e r, 1 9 7 9 :6 2 2 ). Sm okers h a v e b ee n th e l o s e r s i n t h i s c o n f l i c t b e in g r e le g a t e d to th e r e a r o f p u b lic c o n v e y a n c e s, c a l le d p o l l u t e r s, and a s s ig n e d s p e c i a l s e a ti n g i n r e s t a u r a n t s. The a n ti- s m o k in g g ro u p s have been so su c c e ssfu l th a t M arkle and Troyer (1979:613) sp e c u la te
t h a t "S m o k in g, i t a p p e a r s, may becom e a n a c t i v i t y p e r m i s s i b l e o n ly f o r t h o s e o f l e g a l a g e i n th e p r iv a c y o f t h e i r hom e." W h e th er one u s e s th e m e d ic a l m odel e x p la n a tio n o r th e s t a t u s g ro u p c o n f l i c t a rg u m e n t, th e p o i n t th e s e a u th o r s a r e m aking i s t h a t sm oking h a s come to b e s e e n a s d e v ia n t b e h a v io r. In t h e m ost g e n e r a l s e n s e, d e v ia n c e r e f e r s to a b e h a v io r t h a t " v i o l a t e s i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d e x p e c t a t i o n s " (norm s) (G ib b o n s and J o n e s, 1 9 7 5 :3 ) and i s s u b j e c t to s a n c ti o n s. Smoking i s d e v i a n t in th e s e n s e t h a t t h e p e r s o n who e n g a g e s i n Llie b e h a v io r i s in d a n g e r o f b e in g l a b e le d a s a s o c i a l i r r i t a n t o r ev e n s u b j e c t to o f f i c i a l s a n c ti o n s. As s o c i o l o g i s t s h a v e c o n c e p tu a liz e d th e phenom enon, d e v ia n c e h a s two b a s i c d im e n s io n s : b e h a v i o r a l and d e f i n i t i o n a l. A c c o rd in g to F r id a y ( 1 9 8 0 :2 ) : The b e h a v i o r a l d im e n s io n c o n c e n t r a te s on th e a c t o r and t h e c a u s e o r e t i o l o g y o f th e a c t w h ile th e d e f i n i t i o n a l a n a ly z e s th e s o c i e t a l r e a c t i o n t o th e a c t and t h e p r o c e s s by w h ich some a c t s becom e d e f in e d and r e a c t e d t o a s d e v i a n t, c r im i n a l o r b o th. D e v ia n c e s c h o l a r s h a v e s p e n t a g r e a t d e a l o f e n e rg y and e f f o r t i n e x p lo r in g th e b e h a v i o r a l d im e n s io n and th e s o c i e t a l r e a c t i o n to th e a c t. By c o n t r a s t, th e p r i o r phenom enon, th e d e f i n i t i o n o f th e a c t a s d e v i a n t, h as. n o t b e e n th e s u b j e c t o f e x t e n s i v e s o c i o l o g i c a l i n q u i r y. T h is s i t u a t i o n i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f m o st o f th e s u b s t a n t i v e a r e a s g ro u p e d u n d e r d e v i a n t b e h a v io r. F o r ex a m p le, i f we. exam ine t h e j u v e n i l e d e lin q u e n c y l i t e r a t u r e we f in d many s t u d i e s d e s c r i b i n g th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d e l i n q u e n t s, t h e i r s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n t, t h e i r
5 s u b c u l t u r e, and t h e o r e t i c a l e x p o s i t i o n s on th e c a u s e s o f d e lin q u e n c y. T h e re i s a l s o a gro w in g body o f l i t e r a t u r e d e s c r i b i n g th e f u n c tio n in g and im p a c t o f t h e o f f i c i a l p r o c e s s in g sy ste m a s w e ll a s t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e m u l ti t u d e o f tr e a tm e n t p ro g ra m s. Y e t o n e i s h a rd p u t to f i n d an a n a l y s i s o f how s p e c i f i c c a t e g o r i e s o f b e h a v io r came to be d e f in e d a s d e l i n q u e n t. A c c o rd in g to F r id a y, t h i s fo c u s h a s f o s t e r e d a te n d e n c y to v iew a c t s th e m s e lv e s a s a b s o l u t e s and a " f a i l u r e to a c c o u n t f o r th e v a r i a b i l i t y in th e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e a c t " ( F r id a y, 1 9 8 0 ). D e v ia n c e, a f t e r a l l, i s a r e l a t i v e phenom enon. T h e re a r e few b e h a v io r s w h ich a r e s e e n a s i n a p p r o p r i a t e i n a l l s i t u a t i o n s and c u l t u r a l c o n t e x ts. I t i s th e g ro u p, th e c o l l e c t i v i t y, w h ich e s t a b l i s h e s th e r u l e s (norm s) w h ich d e f in e th e a c t a s e i t h e r i n a p p r o p r i a t e o r a c c e p ta b le. S everal sc h o la rs have noted th a t th is problem must be add re ssed. A kers, fo r exam ple, comments: T h e s e, th e n a r e th e two b a s ic p ro b le m s f a c in g th e s o c io lo g y o f d e v ia n c e : How a n d /o r why c e r t a i n k in d s o f b e h a v io r and p e o p le g e t d e f in e d o r l a b e le d a s d e v i a n t. How a n d /o r why some p e o p le en g a g e i n d e v i a n t a c t s. Our r e s e a r c h m u st p r o v id e the. d a ta on and o u r t h e o r i e s s h o u ld e x p l a in b o th s o c i a l d e f i n i t i o n s and b e h a v io r s. (1 9 6 8 :4 5 6 ) More re c e n tly K itsu se and S pector have suggested th a t a theory of deviance should p rovide a... d e s c r i p t i o n and e x p la n a tio n o f th e d e f i n i t i o n a l p r o c e s s in w h ich m o ra lly o b j e c tio n a b le c o n d itio n s o r b e h a v io r a r e a s s e r t e d to e x i s t, and th e c o l l e c t i v e a c t i v i t i e s th a c becom e o r g a n iz e d a ro u n d t h e s e a s s e r t i o n s. (And)... to e x p la in how th e s e d e f i n i t i o n s and a s s e r t i o n s come to b e m a d e... ( 1 9 7 5 :5 9 3 )
6 The c i g a r e t t e sm oking c o n tr o v e r s y p r o v id e s an o p p o r tu n ity to e x p lo r e t h i s c o l l e c t i v e d e f i n i t i o n o f d e v ia n c e p r o c e s s. F i r s t, th e b e h a v io r h a s b een s u b j e c t to c h a n g in g l e g a l and s o c i a l d e f i n i t i o n s. L e g a lly p r o h i b i t e d by a num ber o f s t a t e s a t th e tu r n o f th e c e n tu r y, t h e h a b i t g a in e d a c c e p ta n c e d u r in g th e p o st-w o rld War I I e r a b u t h a s come u n d e r i n c r e a s i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s to d a y. S im i l a r l y, th e p u b lic p e r c e p t i o n o f sm oking h a s ra n g e d from v ie w in g th e b e h a v io r a s a sym bol o f im m o r a lity d u r in g th e e a r l y n in e t e e n t h c e n tu r y t o, p e r h a p s, a sym bol o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n d u r in g th e 1950s b u t s u b j e c t to s o c i a l a p p r o b a tio n to d a y. S eco n d, w h ile th e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n in A m erican s o c i e t y seem s to b e o n e o f d e c r e a s in g s t ig m a ti z a t i o n o f b e h a v io r s o n ce c o n s id e r e d r e p r e h e n s ib l e ( f o r ex am p le, h o m o s e x u a lity ), sm oking r e p r e s e n t s an a tte m p t to p u t o n c e a c c e p te d b e h a v io r b ack i n t o th e c l o s e t. T h ir d, t h e e v e n ts a r e c u r r e n t l y u n f o ld in g w h ich m eans t h a t i n s te a d o f d e p e n d e n c e on h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l s i t i s p o s s i b l e to d i r e c t l y o b s e r v e th e p r o c e s s an d c o l l e c t d a t a from th e p a r t i c i p a n t s. F o u r th, u n l i k e many o t h e r i n s ta n c e s w h ere a b e h a v io r was d e f in e d a s d e v i a n t, a p o w e rfu l i n t e r e s t g ro u p h a s becom e a c t i v e i n o p p o s in g th e d e v i a n t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n a d d in g a s p e c i a l dynam ic to t h e p r o c e s s. F i n a l l y, a v a s t am ount o f d a ta i s a v a i l a b l e. The f e d e r a l g o v e rn m e n t, f o r ex a m p le, h a s b een c o n d u c tin g s u rv e y s on a d u l t u s e o f to b a c c o and p u b lic a t t i t u d e s to w ard sm o k in g, p u b lis h in g d a t a on to b a c c o p r o d u c tio n and c i g a r e t t e m a n u fa c tu re, r e p o r t i n g th e am ount o f money c o l l e c t e d th ro u g h c i g a r e t t e t a x e s, and h o ld in g h e a r in g s (C o n g re ss and r e g u la t o r y a g e n c ie s ) on th e num erous p ro and a n ti- s m o k in g p r o p o s a ls. The to b a c c o in d u s tr y a l s o m a in ta in s an
7 e x te n s iv e l i b r a r y on th e s u b j e c t and to b a c c o company a n n u a l c o r p o r a te r e p o r t s a r e a v a i l a b l e. I n a d d i t i o n, s i n c e th e c o n tr o v e r s y h a s r e c e iv e d a g t e a t d e a l o f p u b lic a t t e n t i o n from th e m ass m ed ia o v e r t h e y e a r s, a w r i t t e n d o c u m e n ta ry re c o r d e x i s t s. B esides provid in g an op p o rtu n ity to exam ine the deviance creat i o n p r o c e s s, th e s tu d y o f c i g a r e t t e sm oking p r o v id e s an o p p o r tu n ity t o e v a l u a t e th e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f s e v e r a l m a jo r s o c i o l o g i c a l a p p ro a c h e s to s o c ia l phenomena. One approach has em phasized th a t c o n tra d ic t i o n s o r s t r a i n s among th e s y s te m 's p a r t s a r e c r u c i a l f o r e x p la in in g th e em e rg en c e o f s o c i a l phenom ena. W ith c i g a r e t t e sm o k in g, f o r e x a m p le, t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e w ould e m p h a siz e th e m e d ic a l m odel s u g g e s tin g t h a t s i n c e sm oking i s h a rm fu l i t h a s come to be s e e n a s i n a p p r o p r i a t e. The o th e r s o c i o l o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n p l a c e s much l e s s e m p h a sis on s t r a i n a r g u in g t h a t th e m o st im p o rta n t f a c t o r i s th e i n t e r e s t g ro u p i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s. T h is v iew i s r e p r e s e n te d i n th e M ark le and T ro y e r (1979) argum ent th a t th e re s tr ic tio n s on smoking a re b e st understood as products of c o n f lic t between s ta tu s groups. A m ajor cont r i b u t i o n o f t h i s s tu d y i s t h a t th e s e two g e n e r a l m o d els w i l l b e e v a lu a te d and th e r o l e o f th e m a jo r f a c t o r s m ore c l e a r l y s p e c i f i e d. S ince the problem being addressed is how the group ( c o lle c t i v i t y ) comes to s e e some ty p e o f b e h a v io r a s i n a p p r o p r i a t e, th e f o c u s o f t h i s s tu d y i s on th e i n s t i t u t i o n a l l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s. The a n a l y s i s fo c u s e s on th e r o l e p la y e d by v a r io u s c a t e g o r i e s c o m p ris in g th e s t r u c t u r a l o r d e r i n g e t t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s to d e f in e sm oking a s i n a p p r o p r i a t e. O th e r l e v e l s o f a n a l y s i s c e r t a i n l y w ould c o n t r i b u t e to an understanding of th e phenomenon and ap p ro p riace d ata could be
c o l l e c t e d t o c o n d u c t su c h a n a l y s e s. H ow ever, su c h an e x p a n s iv e u ndertaking is precluded here because of tim e and re so u rce cons t r a i n t s. The c e n t r a l p ro b le m t h i s r e s e a r c h a d d r e s s e s i s Why and how i s c i g a r e t t e sm oking com ing to be s e e n a s u n d e s ir a b le? S u b s id a ry q u e s tio n s a r e : How d o e s th e a n t i - c i g a r e t t e c r u s a d e a t th e t u r n o f th e c e n tu r y com pare w ith th e p r e s e n t a n ti-s m o k in g m ovem ent? Why i s c i g a r e t t e sm oking com ing to b e s e e n a s d e v ia n t a t t h i s p o i n t in tim e?. What s o c i a l f o r c e s a r e r e s p o n s ib l e f o r t h i s new d e f i n i t i o n? I n w hat c ir c u m s ta n c e s h a v e th e y b ee n s u c c e s s f u l? What s o c i a l f o r c e s a r e o p p o sin g t h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f th e sm oker and sm oking? w hat s i t u a t i o n s h a v e th e p ro -s m o k in g f o r c e s b ee n s u c c e s s f u l? In What is th e lik e ly outcome of th is controversy?
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL ORIENTATIONS The s o c io lo g y o f d e v ia n c e i s th e s tu d y o f r u l e v i o l a t i o n. Y et th o u g h we know so m e th in g a b o u t how and why r u l e s a r e v i o l a t e d, we know l i t t l e a b o u t how and why r u l e s a r e c r e a t e d. I t f o l l o w s,. th e n, t h a t we h a v e l i t t l e i n s i g h t i n t o th e p r o c e s s by w h ich d e v ia n t c a t e g o r i e s and d e s i g n a t i o n s a r e c r e a t e d. In an a tte m p t to g a in some.i n s i g h t, t h i s c h a p te r ex am in es th e l i t e r a t u r e from s e v e r a l a r e a s t h a t fo c u s on phenom ena c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to t h i s s t u d y 's cen t r a l c o n c e rn. S p e c i f i c a l l y, we w i l l b e g in w ith an e x a m in a tio n o f th e c o l l e c t i v e b e h a v i o r / s o c i a l p ro b le m s l i t e r a t u r e w ith o r g a n iz a t i o n a l and s o c io lo g y o f la w /c rim in o lo g y id e a s d is c u s s e d n e x t. A f te r th e i s s u e s r a i s e d i n t h i s l i t e r a t u r e a r e d e l i n e a t e d, th e c h a p te r c o n c lu d e s w ith a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e m a jo r t h e o r e t i c a l m o d els t o b e e v a lu a te d in t h i s r e s e a r c h. C o lle c t i v e B e h a v io r a nd D e v ia n c e : T r a d i t i o n a l A p p ro ach e s T h e o r e t i c a l e x p la n a tio n s o f c o l l e c t i v e b e h a v io r h a v e d e v e lo p e d from two g e n e r a l fram ew o rk s t h a t s o c i o l o g i s t s h a v e u se d to a n a ly z e s o c i a l l y d i s r u p t i v e phenom ena ( d e v ia n c e, p r o t e s t s, r i o t s, m obs, s o c i a l m ovem ents, and so f o r t h ). One a p p r o a c h, p e r h a p s h i s t o r i c a l l y th e dom inant one, has been th a t people g et involved in such a c tiv i t i e s b e c a u s e so m e th in g i s wrong in t h e i r s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n t. Many te rm s h a v e b ee n u sed to c h a r a c t e r i z e t h i s e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d i t i o n. 9
10 S m e lse r ( 1 9 6 2 :4 7 ), f o r e x a m p le, n o te s t h a t among th e m ore p ro m in e n t concepts employed to d e sc rib e th is phenomena a re " s tr a in, " " p re s s u r e, " " m a l i n t e g r a t i o n, " " d i s e q u i l i b r i u m, " " d i s i n t e g r a t i o n, " " im b a la n c e," " d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n, " " i n c o n s i s t e n c y, " " c o n f l i c t, " " d e p r i v a t i o n, " and " a n o m ie." S m e lse r s e l e c t s th e te rm s t r a i n f o r h i s w ork and d e f in e s i t a s " a n im p a irm e n t o f th e r e l a t i o n s among and c o n s e q u e n tly in a d e q u a te ly f u n c ti o n i n g o f th e co m p o n e n ts o f s o c i a l a c t i o n s ( 1 9 6 2 :4 7 ). As c a n be s e e n from th e v a r i e t y o f te rm s em ployed and ev e n th e d e f i n i t i o n S m e lse r u s e s, s t r a i n i s a g e n e r a l e x p la n a tio n t h a t h a s n o t b een c o n s i s t e n t l y l i m i t e d to one s p e c i f i c phenom enon. P e rh a p s t h e m ost common c o n c e p tio n o f s t r a i n i s in econom ic te rm s ( O b e r s h c a ll, 1973) b u t o t h e r s c h o l a r s, e s p e c i a l l y S m e lse r a l s o u se th e te rm to a p p ly to d i s c r e p a n c ie s b etw e en d i f f e r e n t g o a l s, d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s, v a lu e s and n o rm s, k n o w led g e and a c t i o n s, te c h n o lo g y and v a l u e s, and so f o r t h ( S m e ls e r, 1 9 6 2 :C h a p te r I I I ). W h a tev er t h e i r c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n, t h e s e s t r a i n s c h o l a r s fo c u s on some d is c r e p a n c y o r d ish a rm o n y i n th e s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n t a s th e m o st im p o r ta n t e x p la n a to r y f a c t o r. The o t h e r s o c i o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h h a s a rg u e d t h a t d i s r u p t i v e s o c ia l phenomena a re b e st understood as em ergent products of soc i a l i n t e r a c t i o n. B e g in n in g w ith the. a s s u m p tio n t h a t man i s an a c t i v e c r e a t o r o f h i s own s o c i a l r e a l i t y, t h i s v iew s t r e s s e s t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l 's o r g r o u p 's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e s i t u a t i o n em erg es from i n t e r a c t i o n w ith o t h e r s. I t i s on th e b a s i s o f t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t. b e h a v i o r o c c u r s. T h e r e f o r e, th e e x p la n a to r y em p h a sis i s n o t on s t r a i n b u t th e i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s b etw e en i n d i v id u a l s arid
11 g ro u p s i n th e s o c i e t y. Sm elser (1962) has form ulated th e m ost e la b o ra te s tr a in explanat i o n o f ' c o l l e c t i v e b e h a v io r. H is v a lu e added m odel s u g g e s ts t h a t s t r a i n m u st be p r e s e n t b e f o r e c o l l e c t i v e b e h a v io r, i n c lu d in g s o c i a l m ovem ents, w i l l o c c u r. Of p a r t i c u l a r im p o rta n c e h e r e i s h i s d i s cu ssio n of s tr a in as a cause of what he term s " norm -oriented movem e n ts," d e f in e d a s " a t t e m p t ( s ) to r e s t o r e, p r o t e c t, m o d ify, o r c re a te norms in th e name of a g en e ralize d b e lie f " ( 1962:270). Alth o u g h h e d o e s i n d i c a t e t h a t econom ic f a c t o r s and d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n s a r e o f t e n in v o lv e d, h e a p p e a r s to p la c e g r e a t e r em p h a sis on n o n m a t e r ia l f a c t o r s. F o r ex a m p le, h e com m ents: Sometimes th e appearance of new knowledge in i t i a t e s a m ovem ent to a p p ly t h i s k now ledge in o r d e r to e r a d i c a t e a c o n d itio n p r e v io u s ly ta k e n f o r g r a n te d. (1 9 6 2 :2 8 7 ) Any d ish a rm o n y b etw e en n o rm a tiv e s ta n d a r d s and a c t u a l s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s ca n p r o v id e th e b a s i s f o r a movem ent w hose o b j e c t i v e i t i s to m o d ify norm s ( 1 9 6 2 :2 8 8 ). The r i s e o f new v a lu e s f r e q u e n t l y c r e a t e s b a s e s f o r d e f in i n g c e r t a i n s o c i a l c o n d itio n s a s " e v i l s " - s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s w h ich p r e v io u s ly p a s s e d l e s s n o tic e d (1 9 6 2 :2 8 9 ). A lth o u g h s o c i a l p ro b le m s and d e v ia n c e s c h o l a r s h a v e n o t u sed th e te rm s t r a i n, much o f th e w ork i n th e s e a r e a s i s b ase d on t h a t model. Most s o c ia l problem s tex tb o o k s, fo r exam ple, focus on cond i t i o n s t h a t h a v e come to be se e n a s p r o b le m a tic. R o b e rt M erton ( 1 976:7 ), perhaps th e most em inent sch o lar in th is tr a d itio n, comm en ts t h a t " a s o c i a l p ro b le m e x i s t s when t h e r e i s a s i z e a b l e d i s crepancy betw een what is and what people th in k ought to b e."
12 A n o th e r le a d in g p ro p o n e n t o f t h i s t r a d i t i o n a r g u e s t h a t s o c i a l p ro b le m s a r e th o s e c o n d itio n s d e t r i m e n t a l to human w e ll b e in g (M a n is, i9 7 6 :2 5 ). The i m p lic a t io n o f t h e a b o v e s ta te m e n ts f o r u n d e r s ta n d in g th e c o l l e c t i v e d e f i n i t i o n o f d e v ia n c e i s u n m is ta k a b le : new d e f i n i t i o n s o f d e v ia n c e a r i s e b e c a u s e o f some s t r a i n (new k n o w le d g e, d is c r e p a n c y between re a l and id e a l, or harm to human w ell being) in the so c ie ty. The p r o c e s s t r a d i t i o n i n c o l l e c t i v e b e h a v io r i s u s u a l l y tr a c e d b a c k.to H e r b e r t B lum er (1 9 6 9 :1 0 3 ) who a rg u e d t h a t i n s te a d o f f o c u s in g on su c h th in g s a s s t r u c t u r a l s t r a i n, c o l l e c t i v e b e h a v io r and s o c i a l movements must be understood as p ro d u cts of fiv e in te ra c tio n proce s s e s : a g i t a t i o n, d e v e lo p m e n t o f e s p i r i t d e c o r p s, d e v e lo p m e n t o f m o ra le, f o r m a tio n o f an id e o lo g y, and th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f o p e r a tin g t a c t i c s. B a s i c a ll y, h i s v iew i s t h a t th ro u g h i n t e r a c t i o n w ith th e l a r g e r s o c i e t y and w i t h i n th e c o l l e c t i v i t y, a m ovem ent grow s and becom es o r g a n iz e d. B lum er h a s a p p lie d t h e s e id e a s to th e s o c i a l p ro b le m s -d e v ia n c e a r e a. I n an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d " S o c i a l P ro b lem s a s C o lle c t i v e Beh a v io r " (1971) he a r g u e s t h a t s o c i a l p ro b le m s a r e th e " f o c a l p o i n t f o r th e o p e r a t i o n o f d iv e r g e n t and c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s, i n t e n t i o n s, and o b j e c ti v e s " ( 1 9 7 1 :3 0 1 ). A c c o rd in g to B lum er i t i s th e i n t e r p l a y o f t h e s e i n t e r e s t s and o b j e c ti v e s t h a t i s in v o lv e d in th e c o l l e c t i v e d e f i n i t i o n and c a r e e r o f s o c i a l p ro b le m s, a p r o c e s s co n s is tin g of fiv e sta g e s : (1 ) th e em ergence of a s o c ia l problem, (2) th e l e g i t i m a t i o n o f th e p ro b le m, (3 ) th e m o b i liz a t io n o f a c t io n w ith regard to th e problem, (4 ) the form ation, of an o f f ic ia l p lan 6f
13 a c t i o n, and (5 ) th e tr a n s f o r m a t i o n o f th e o f f i c i a l p la n i n i t s em p irica l im plem entation ( 1971:301). The s ta tu s p o litic s fo rm u latio n developed by G usfield (1963, 1967) r e p r e s e n ts a n o th e r one o f th e m a jo r p r o c e s s u a l a p p r o a c h e s in t h e l i t e r a t u r e. B a s i c a l l y, G u s f ie ld s u g g e s ts t h a t a tte m p ts to h av e a b e h a v io r d e s ig n a te d a s d e v ia n t a r e o f t e n s y m b o lic b a t t l e s "b e tw e e n o p p o sed sy ste m s o f m o r a l i t i e s, c u l t u r e s and s t y l e s o f l i f e " (1 9 6 3 : 173). In o th er w ords, i t is not the behavior per se or s o c ia l cond i t i o n s w h ich c a u s e t h e a tte m p t to l a b e l th e b e h a v io r a s d e v i a n t. I n s t e a d, th e d e s i g n a t i o n o f d e v ia n c e m ust be se e n a s a p r o d u c t o f s t a t u s c o n f l i c t, th e c o m p e titio n f o r th e o f f i c i a l a s s ig n m e n t o f h o n o r and p r e s t i g e th ro u g h l e g i t i m a t i o n o f g ro u p n o rm s. F o r e x a m p le, G u s f ie ld n o te s t h a t th e T em perance Movement r e p r e s e n te d, in p p - 't, t h e d o m in an ce o f P r o t e s t a n t i n t e r e s t s o v e r C a th o lic. To r u r a l, n a t i v e A m erican P r o t e s t a n t s, d r in k in g was a d e f ia n c e o f th e im p o r ta n t norm s o f s o b r i e t y, i n d u s t r y, and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y. V i o l a t o r s w e re to b e p u n is h e d w ith c o e r c iv e l e g a l s t r i c t u r e s. A lso w o rk in g from th e p r o c e s s u a l a p p r o a c h, L em e rt (1974) c a u tio n e d a g a i n s t th e te m p ta tio n o f e x p la in in g th e c o l l e c t i v e d e f i n i t i o n o f d e v ia n c e a s th e c r e a t i o n o f one g r o u p, c l a s s, o r e l i t e s in c e t h i s i s n o t th e way l e g i s l a t u r e s w ork i n f o r m u la tin g r u l e s. I n s te a d o f lo o k in g o n ly a t o n e g ro u p, th e s o c i o l o g i s t, a c c o r d in g to L e m e rt, m u st exam ine th e g ro u p i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s b e g in n in g w ith i n d i v id u a l s who a f f i l i a t e w ith g ro u p s f o r s a t i s f a c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l v a lu e s and. p u rp o s e p r i o r i t i e s ( 1 9 7 4 :4 6 3 ). I n t h i s p r o c e s s i n d i v id u a l s g iv e up some v a lu e s to s a t i s f y o t h e r s. Group a c t i o n, th e n, r e f l e c t s th e
p r i o r i t i e s o f i n d i v id u a l m em bers p lu s th e a v a i l a b i l i t y and c o s t s, among o t h e r t h i n g s, o f a c h ie v in g g o a l s. C o n s e q u e n tly, i t becom es im p o s s ib le to p r e d i c t th e em e rg en c e o f new d e f i n i t i o n s and c o n t r o l s o f d e v ia n c e w ith o u t e x a m in in g th e d ile m m a s, c o m p ro m ise s, b u d g e t l i m i t a t i o n s, and so f o r t h in v o lv e d i n th e g ro u p I n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s. L e m e r t's p o i n t seem s to b e t h a t e x i s t i n g a p p r o a c h e s a r e in a d e q u a te in a c c o u n tin g f o r new d e f i n i t i o n s o f d e v ia n c e c o n s id e r in g th e comp l e x i t i e s o f m odern s o c i e t y and th e d e f i n i t i o n a l p r o c e s s. F o llo w in g t h i s t r a d i t i o n, S p e c to r and K its u s e (1 9 7 7 ) h a v e p r e s e n te d th e m o st r e c e n t p r o c e s s arg u m e n t s u g g e s tin g t h a t th e s c h o l a r m ust fo c u s on c la im s -m a k in g a c t i v i t i e s to u n d e r s ta n d th e em e rg en c e o f a p ro b le m o r d e f i n i t i o n o f d e v ia n c e. I n a d d i t i o n to s t r e s s i n g th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f g ro u p i n t e r a c t i o n, a s th e a u th o r s re v ie w e d a b o v e d o, th e y a l s o a r g u e t h a t th e c la im s -m a k in g a c t i v i t i e s o f i n d i v id u a l s a r e im p o r ta n t. T h is s u g g e s ts t h a t th e c o l l e c t i v e d e f i n i t i o n o f d e v ia n c e may b e th e c o n se q u e n c e o f p o p u la r s e n tim e n t a s w e ll a s o r g a n iz e d s o c i a l m o v em en ts.^ I n summary i t seem s c l e a r t h a t a tte m p ts to g a in new d e f i n i t i o n s o f d e v ia n c e c a n b e s e e n a s s o c i a l m ovem ents (a ty p e o f c o l l e c t i v e b e h a v io r ) a lth o u g h t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n t e x p la n a tio n s f o r th e c a u s e s o f su c h m ovem ents. The p r o c e s s a p p ro a c h s u g g e s ts t h a t c o l l e c t i v e d e f i n i t i o n s m ust b e se e n a s a p r o d u c t o f i n t e r e s t g roup a c t i v i t i e s. By c o n t r a s t th e s t r a i n e x p la n a tio n i s t h a t s o c i e t a l d i s j u n c t i o n s a r e th e m a jo r c a t a l y s t f o r new d e f i n i t i o n s.
C o ll e c t i v e B e h a v io r and D e v ia n c e : New D i r e c t i o n s D u rin g th e p a s t d e c a d e, a num ber o f s c h o l a r s h a v e a tte m p te d to move beyond th e t r a d i t i o n a l s t r a i n o r p r o c e s s m o d e ls. F o r e x a m p le, M auss (1 9 7 5 : M auss and W o lfe, 1977) d raw s on b o th th e s t r a i n and p r o c e s s a p p r o a c h e s i n e x p la in in g th e p u b lic d e f i n i t i o n o f c o n d i t i o n s a s s o c i a l p ro b le m s. M auss a r g u e s t h a t s o c i e t a l a r ra n g e m e n ts ( s t r u c t u r a l c o n d u c iv e n e s s ) m u st p e r m it c o l l e c t i v e b e h a v io r w h ich u s u a l l y f o c u s e s on s t r u c t u r a l s t r a i n s b ro u g h t a b o u t by s o c i a l c h a n g e. W h ile many s t r a i n s a r e p r e s e n t i n s o c i e t y, n o t a l l a r e d e f in e d a s s o c i a l p ro b le m s by th e p u b l i c. P u b lic r e c o g n i t io n o f s o c i a l p ro b le m s d e p e n d s on c o n s e n s u a l r e a l i t y ( d e f in e d a s g e n e r a liz e d a g re e m e n t a b o u t w hat i s t r u e o r f a c t u a l ) w h ich i s th e p r o d u c t o f num erous s o c i a l in f l u e n c e s i n c l u d i n g i n t e r e s t g ro u p a c t i v i t i e s. E conom ic, p o l i t i c a l, o c c u p a t i o n a l, m o r a l, p s y c h o l o g i c a l, and s c i e n t i f i c i n t e r e s t g ro u p s a tte m p t to h a v e t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n s o f r e a l i t y a c c e p te d a s p a r t o f th e c o n s e n s u a l r e a l i t y by o r g a n iz in g s o c i a l m ovem ents. I n r e f e r e n c e to th e t o p i c h e r e, new s o c i a l p ro b le m s o r new d e f i n i t i o n s o f d e v ia n c e a r e th e p r o d u c ts o f s o c i a l m ovem ents le d by i n t e r e s t g ro u p s. A n o th e r a tte m p t to move beyond th e s t r a i n and p r o c e s s m o d els h a s b een d e v e lo p e d by O b e r s c h a ll (1 9 7 3 ), M cc arthy and Z ald (1 9 7 3, 1 9 7 7 ), and Gamson (1 9 7 5 ). T h is fram ew o rk b e g in s w ith th e a s s u m p tio n t h a t s o c i e t y i s com posed o f a num ber o f c a t e g o r i e s (e c o n o m ic, s t a t u s, r a c i a l, e t c, ) in c o n f l i c t. C o n s e q u e n tly s t r a i n i s a lw a y s p r e s e n t s i n c e t h e r e i s d is a g r e e m e n t among th e c a t e g o r i e s o v e r w hich v a l u e s,
n o rm s, econom ic a r r a n g e m e n ts, and so f o r t h a r e to p r e v a i l i n th e s o c i e t y. The p ro b le m, t h e r e f o r e, i s to e x p l a in how one c a t e g o r y s p r e f e r e n c e s o r d e f i n i t i o n o f th e s i t u a t i o n come to be r e c o g n iz e d and a c te d u p o n. I n t r y i n g to s o lv e t h i s p ro b le m, t h e s e s c h o l a r s h av e em ployed t h e c o n c e p t o f r e s o u r c e "w h ic h can be a n y th in g fro m m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s j o b s, in c o m e, and th e r i g h t to m a t e r i a l s, goods and s e r v i c e s to n o n m a te r ia l r e s o u r c e s a u t h o r i t y, m o ra l com m itm ent, t r u s t., f r i e n d s h i p, s k i l l s, h a b i t s o f i n d u s t r y, and so on" ( O b e r s c h a ll, 1 9 7 3 :2 8 ). G roup c o n f l i c t and th e em e rg en c e o f s o c i a l m ovem ents a r e th e n a n a ly z e d i n te rm s o f th e a b i l i t y o f th e c o l l e c t i v i t i e s to c r e a t e and m o b iliz e r e s o u r c e s. A dynam ic e le m e n t i s in tr o d u c e d i n t o th e a n a l y s i s s i n c e th e fo c u s i s on r e s o u r c e s m o b iliz e d by g ro u p s in r e s p o n s e to th e em ploym ent o f r e s o u r c e s by th e o p p o s i ti o n g ro u p. A u th o ritie s, fo r exam ple, a re also seen as p o ssessin g reso u rces emp lo y m en t o f w h ich r e q u i r e s some k in d o f r e s p o n s e ( m o b i l iz a t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s ) from a s o c i a l m ovem ent. One m ajo r a d v a n ta g e o f th e r e s o u r c e m o b i li z a t io n a p p r o a c h i s t h a t i t p e r m its e x p la n a tio n o f s u c c e s s and f a i l u r e. I n a d d i t i o n, i t p r o v id e s some d i r e c t i o n p o i n t in g to c r u c i a l v a r i a b l e s to be a n a ly z e d. W ith r e f e r e n c e to th e c o l l e c t i v e d e f i n i t i o n o f b e h a v io r a s d e v i a n t, th e r e s o u r c e m o b i liz a t io n th e o r y s u g g e s ts t h a t we ca n g a in i n s i g h t by f o c u s in g on th e r e s o u r c e s em ployed by th e s o c i a l g ro u p s in v o lv e d.