University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 1976 Attitudes of University of Montana students toward the contributions of the intercollegiate athletic program and the intramural recreation program to their general education Rodney B. Warnick The University of Montana Let us know how access to this document benefits you. Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Recommended Citation Warnick, Rodney B., "Attitudes of University of Montana students toward the contributions of the intercollegiate athletic program and the intramural recreation program to their general education" (1976). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 7825. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/7825 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact scholarworks@mso.umt.edu.
THE ATTITUDES OF UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA STUDENTS TOWARD THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETIC PROGRAM AND THE INTRAMURAL RECREATION PROGRAM TO THEIR GENERAL EDUCATION By Rodney B. Warnick B.S., Frostburg State College, 1975 Presented in p a rtia l fu lfillm ent of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA 1976 Approved by: Chairman, Board of Examiners D e a n v ^ r ^ u ^ ^ School Date ^
UMI Number; EP38626 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMT OisscNiation Ribti«hing UMI EP38626 Published by ProQuest LLC (2013). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code uest ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346
ABSTRACT Warnick, Rodney B., M.S., August 1976 Recreation The A ttitu d es of U niversity o f Montana Students Toward the C ontributions of the In te rc o lle g ia te A th letic Program and the Intram ural Recreation Program to Their General Education. D irecto r: Lloyd A. Heywood The purpose of th is study was to determine i f a s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e ex isted between the expressed a ttitu d e s of the U n iv ersity of Montana stu d en ts toward the co n trib u tio n s of the in te r c o lle g ia te a th l e t i c program and the intram ural recre a tio n program to th e ir general education. Seven hundred and eight stu d en ts o f the random sampled population responded to the q u estio n n aire survey. Twenty-six b i-p o la r ad jec tiv e scales were u tiliz e d through the semantic d if f e r e n tia l q u estionnaire to te s t the a ttitu d e s o f u n iv e rsity students toward the two sp o rt programs a t the U niversity o f Montana. Twenty-five o f the tw enty-six b i-p o la r ad jec tiv e scales were found to reveal a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t d ifferen ce a t the.05 le v e l between the a ttitu d e s expressed by U niversity o f Montana stu d en ts. F in a lly, the U n iv ersity of Montana stu d en ts appeared to express more favorable a ttitu d e s toward the intram ural re c re a tio n program than toward th e in te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic program in the co n trib u tio n s made to th e ir general education. 1 1
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wished to express his sincere gratitude and appreciation to Dr. Lloyd Heywood, Chairman, and committee members, Dr. Larry Gianchetta, and Dr. Gary Nygaard for th e ir encouragement, contributions, and guidance throughout the course of th is study. The author is deeply indebted to Mr. Larry Sanders for his assistance in the computer analysis of the study's data. The author also wishes to express his thanks to his parents, Mr. and Mrs. William M. Warnick, for th eir support and understanding which made th is study possible. Finally, the author wishes to dedicate th is study to Miss Deborah Conord for her love, support, and understanding during the completion of his degree. 1 X 1 \
TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER page ABSTRACT...'... ü acknowledgments... ;...i l l LIST OF TABLES...vi I. INTRODUCTION... 1 Statem ent of the Problem Hypothesis S ignificance of the Study L im itations D elim itations of Study Basic Assumptions D e fin itio n s I I. REVIEW OF LITERATURE...10 The S tatus of A ttitude Research in A th le tic s and Intram urals Physical Education Research Intram ural Recreation Research Sport and A th le tic Research Educational Research Semantic D iffe re n tia l Research Summary I I I. PROCEDURES... 75 Review of the Problem S electio n of the Subjects Instrum entation Treatment of Data IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA... 82 D escription of Respondents T esting of Hypotheses Summarization of R esults V. CONCLUSION... 135 Summary of Findings D iscussion Conclusions Suggestions fo r F urther Study BIBLIOGRAPHY... 143 iv
APPENDICES...159 A. O utline fo r Study of Financing In te rc o lle g ia te A th le tic s in the Montana U niversity System B. Public Announcements of Study C. Sports Program Q uestionnaire and Score Sheet D. Excerpts of Newspaper A rtic le s Concerning the I n te rc o lle g ia te A th le tic Program a t the U niversity of Montana E. B i-polar A djective Groupings F. Demographic V ariables V
LIST OF TABLES table page 1. Acadmeic Majors of Respondents... 1 2. Sex of R e sp o n d e n ts...83 3. Class Ranking of Respondents... 84 4. Respondents Holding Season T ickets... 85 5. Respondents P a rtic ip a tin g in the In te rc o lle g ia te A th le tic Program... 86 6. Respondents P a rtic ip a tin g in the Intram ural Recreation P ro g ra m.....,. 88 7. Respondents P a rtic ip a tin g in the Physical Education A ctiv ity Level Classes... 88 8. R esults of T-Test fo r "W orthless - Valuable" Scale,.... 91 9. R esults of T-Test fo r "Unimportant - Important" Scale.... 93 10. R esults of T-Test fo r "D isreputable - Reputable" Scale... 94 11. R esults of T-Test fo r "Bad - Good" S c a l e... 96 12. R esults of T-Test for "T ra d itio n al - Innovative" Scale... 97 13. R esults o f T-Test fo r "U seless - Useful" S c a l e... 99 14. R esults of T-Test fo r "U nfair - F air" Scale... 100 15. R esults of T-Test fo r "Dishonest - Honest" Scale... 102 16. R esults of T-Test fo r "P ainful - P leasurable" S c a le...103 17. R esults of T-Test fo r "Non-Educational - Educational" S cale. 105 18. R esults of T-Test fo r "Dangerous - Safe" Scale... 106 19. R esults of T-Test fo r "Narrow - Broad" Scale... 108 20. R esults of T-Test fo r "Rigid - F lex ib le" Scale... 109 21. R esults of T-Test fo r "Humorous - Serious" Scale... I l l 22. R esults of T-Test fo r "Dumb - I n te llig e n t" Scale... 112 vi
23. R esults of T-Test fo r "Expensive - Inexpensive" S cale.... 114 24. R esults of T-Test fo r "Passive - Active" Scale... 116 25. R esults of T-Test fo r "Unemotional - Emotional" Scale.... 117 26. R esults of T-Test fo r "V iolent - Moderate" Scale... 119 27. R esults of T-Test fo r "T ransient - Lasting" S c a le...120 28. R esults of T-Test fo r "Boring - In te re stin g " Scale..... 122 2 9. R esults of T-Test fo r "Disorganized - Organized" Scale... 123 30. R esults of T-Test fo r "Impersonal - Personal" S c a le...125 31. R esults of T-Test fo r "Meaningless - Meaningful" Scale... 126 32. R esults of T-Test fo r "Unnecessary - Necessary" Scale.... 128 33. R esults of T-Test fo r "Strongly Against - Strongly For" S c a l e...129 34. The Standard D eviations and Standard E rrors of the Bi-Polar A djective Scales... 131 3 5. Comparison of T-Test Values fo r the B i-polar A djective S c a l e s... 132 36. Comparison of Means fo r Program B i-polar A djective S cales.. 134 V I 1
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION L ife in the tw en tieth century i s in a constant s ta te o f change and, because of th is, in s titu tio n s in our so cie ty are c o n siste n tly subjected to change and r e v ita liz a tio n (179: 1). One o f these - the in s t i t u t i o n o f higher learn in g - is one of the f a s te s t changing and growing in our so c ie ty. Due to the rap id growth and changes o f th is educational i n s titu tio n, i t has become one of the most in flu e n tia l elements w ithin our modern so c ie ty. Within our in s titu tio n s of higher learn in g l i e s the element o f sp o rt. The element o f sp o rt in our co lleg es and u n iv e rs itie s is manife ste d p rim arily in two program a re as, the in te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic program and the intram ural re c re a tio n program. The s o c ie ta l environment in which these programs o f sp o rt e x is t today i s ra d ic a lly d iffe re n t from th a t of the e a r lie r p a rts o f the tw entieth century, or even th a t o f a decade ago. Edwards s ta te d th a t what i s happening in sp o rts today i s a r e s u lt o f the impact o f the tw entieth century on our way of l i f e (6: 353) A ffluence, speed, and mass communication have a l l combined to c re a te a much sm aller world. T rad itio n has become le s s révé la n t and tremendous s tr a in s have developed (6: 353). Consequently, sp o rts programming today i s experiencing a demand in changes in a l l areas due to g re a te r public exposure and the increased demands o f the stu d en t population a t our co lleg es and u n iv e rs itie s (6: 352). The college of the 70*s has brbught w ith i t the concept " to ta l l i f e education". Along with the knowledge and s k i l l s obtained in the 1
classroom, the campus o f today is s tr iv in g to meet the increased demands o f i t s stu d en ts by providing o p p o rtu n itie s and exposure to an array of 2 e x tra -c u rric u la r and le is u re time p u rsu its (88: i i i ). Oxendine id e n tifie d th is trend a t the co lleg e le v e l by re p o rtin g a marked in crease in the number o f life tim e a c t i v i t i e s being taught, increased coeducational o ffe rin g s, an upsurge o f sp o rt clubs, and a decrease in v a rs ity sp o rts (69). In recen t y ears, various in d iv id u als connected with the re c re a tio n pro fessio n have encouraged u n iv e rsity a d m in istra to rs, with varying degrees o f success, to equalize funding for re c re a tio n serv ices with o th er phases of the u n iv e rsity program. S tu d en ts' a ttitu d e s for the most p a rt have supported th is move. Academic achievement and a successfu l in te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic program have not been, n e c essarily, the major concerns of to d ay 's stu d en ts (136). Evidence o f such a trend e x is ts a t the U niversity o f Montana. In the spring o f 1975, the stu d en t government voted not to use stu d en t a c tiv ity fees for the in te rc o lle g ia te fo o tb a ll program, continuing the policy esta b lish ed the previous year. The same re so lu tio n did s ta te, however, th a t the "students support in tram urals and a l l re c re a tio n a l o p p o rtu n ities offered to stu d en ts a t r e la tiv e ly low costs" (160). The stu d en t government again in 1976 continued the policy o f the two previous years by voting not to a llo c a te monies to the in te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic department in order to reduce tic k e t p ric e s (170). Broer and Holland viewed the determ ination and the meeting of stu d e n t needs and in te re s ts o f paramount importance in a larg e so c ia l p ersp ectiv e (48). The American public has been forced to confront
3 the problem o f the co n stru ctiv e use o f le is u re time in accord with educational philosophy through so c ia l and economical changes. They believed th a t s a tis fy in g stu d en t o b je c tiv e s, needs, and in te r e s ts in a p leasan t manner would help accomodate th is purpose su cc essfu lly. But, in order to accomplish th is, the students* needs, in te r e s ts, and a ttitu d e s as seen by stu d en ts must f i r s t be determined. Determining these a ttitu d e s has become im portant with the increased stu d en t challenge of the ro le and place o f the American u n iv e rsity w ithin our modern so cie ty (133). A second fa c to r i s the taxpayers' re v o lt and the r e s u ltin g increase in c r i t i c a l evaluation of a l l asp ects o f s ta te and lo c a l spending. Students and taxpayers both have begun to look a t the high co st o f in te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic programs as well as physical education f a c i l i t i e s and o th er re la te d programs, and they are challenging th e ir values. In lig h t of th is, demands have been made w ithin the Montana U niversity System to study the financing o f in te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic s. An o u tlin e (Appendix A) was presented to the Board o f Regents during th e ir meeting in February, 1976 by the Commissioner o f Higher Education. This o u tlin e was intended to provide a l i s t o f consid eratio n s to be included in the study o f the financing o f in te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic s. The program areas to be defined were lis te d as in te rc o lle g ia te, i n t r a mural, and club sp o rts. This o u tlin e also included the co n sid eratio n of a survey o f stu d en t a ttitu d e s (a s t a t i s t i c a l sample) concerning these program areas (See Appendix A, IX., Section A.). In ad d itio n the Student Advisory Committee of the Montana U n iv ersity System presented to the Board o f Regents o f February 6, 1976
a re so lu tio n req u estin g s p e c ific a lly th a t the follow ing areas be stu d ied 4 in the in v e stig a tio n o f Montana u n it a t h le tic programs: T itle IX, sources o f income, club and minor sp o rts, g r a n ts - in - a id, in tram u rals, r e c ru itin g (technique and c o s ts ), re la tio n s h ip of a th le tic department to physical education departm ents on various campuses, number of coaches (th e ir d u tie s, teaching r e s p o n s ib ilitie s, pay and te n tu re ), s ta te media treatm ent o f college a th le tic programs, alumni support, and p a rtic ip a tio n in the conferences (159). Such evidence im plies th a t there i s a need w ithin the u n iv e r s itie s of Montana to assess the a ttitu d e s o f students s p e c ific a lly in re la tio n s h ip to the i n t e r c o lle g ia te a th le tic and the intram ural re c re a tio n programs. The value o f obtain in g the re a c tio n o f the student to the forms and processes of education to which he i s exposed has been recognized in recen t years in in s titu tio n s of higher learn in g. In many o f them, surveys o f stu d en t opinions are made from time to time or continuously, to serve as guides in the attem pted so lu tio n o f the problems o f program development (83). Statem ent o f the Problem The purpose o f th is study was to in v e stig a te the a ttitu d e s of u n iv e rsity students toward the co n trib u tio n s o f the in te rc o lle g ia te a t h l e t i c program and the intram ural re c re a tio n program to th e ir general education. S p e c ific a lly, th is study sought to determine the a ttitu d e s o f randomly sele cted U niversity of Montana stu d en ts toward the c o n tr i butions o f the in te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic program and the intram ural
5 re c re a tio n a l program to th e ir general education. In a d d itio n, th is study sought to uncover inform ation which may co n trib u te to the so lu tio n s of problems asso ciated w ith both programs. Hypothesis The hypothesis te s te d in th is study was th a t there w ill be no d iffere n c e in the a ttitu d e s of u n iv e rsity stu d en ts toward the co n trib u tio n s of the in te rc o lle g ia te a th l e t i c program and toward the co n trib u tio n s of the intram ural re c re a tio n program a t the U niversity of Montana to the general education of stu d en ts a t the U niversity of Montana. S ig n ifican ce of the Study The sig n ific an c e of th is study i s o u tlined in the follow ing p o in ts. 1. The a d m in istra to rs, who are charged w ith the re s p o n s ib ili fo r the operation of these two programs are in constant need of in f o r mation about the programs' co n d itio n s. This study has provided valuable program inform ation. 3. Through th is study, inform ation has been gathered which w ill help a d m in istra to rs, governing bodies, and executive boards to function more e ffe c tiv e ly. 3. This study has provided inform ation as to how stu d en ts perceive the co n trib u tio n s to th e ir general education provided by these two programs. 4. This study has contrib u ted to the sm all body of knowledge on a t titu d e research in s p o rt-re la te d programs.
L im itations The follow ing lim ita tio n s were recognized throughout the conduction o f th is study. 1. This study u tiliz e d a ttitu d e te s tin g which may have been lim ited in c e rta in a sp ects. The expressed a ttitu d e s o f the students re fle c te d th e ir own personal experience and/or perception, and inform ation d ic ta te d to them concerning e ith e r one or both o f these program s. 2. Due to time and economic fa c to rs, lim ita tio n s forced the a ttitu d e research on the two programs to be obtained a t the same time. I f id e a l conditions would have p rev ailed, the a ttitu d e research inform ation would have been obtained se p a ra tely. 3. The non-respondents may have held a ttitu d e s which could have a lte re d the r e s u lts and conclusions. 4. The meaningful Judgements of the b i-p o la r a d je c tiv e s used in th is study may have v aried from stu d en t to stu d en t. 5. The semantic d if f e r e n tia l may have su ffered from a disadvantage in th a t stu d en ts could have responded in a s e t p a tte rn. D elim itations o f Study The follow ing d e lim ita tio n s were recognized throughout th is study. 1. Conclusions based on the findings o f th is study were ap p lica b le only to the stu d en t population a t the U niversity of Montana. 2. The random sample was taken from a l l stu d en ts who were o f f i c i a l l y re g iste re d during the spring q u a rte r, 1976 a t the U niversity
7 o f Montana. Law stu d en ts were excluded from the r e g is tr a tio n l i s t because they were re g is te re d on a sem ester ra th e r than a q u arter b a sis. Basic Assumptions The follow ing basic assumptions were in existence throughout th is study. 1. A ttitu d es o f u n iv e rsity stu d en ts can be adequately detected and measured through the semantic d if f e r e n tia l. 2. The a ttitu d e s o f u n iv e rsity stu d en ts have been esta b lish ed concerning the c o n trib u tio n s of these two programs to th e ir general ed u ca tio n. 3. The semantic d if f e r e n tia l u tiliz e d in th is study has proven v a lid ity and r e l i a b i l i t y in i t s previous ad m in istratio n s. 4. Careful c o n stru ctio n, ad m in istratio n, and evaluation o f the semantic d if f e r e n tia l a ttitu d e scale in th is study w ill reveal the expressed a ttitu d e s o f the u n iv e rsity stu d en ts fo r the purposes of th is study. 5. The sele c te d u n iv e rsity stu d en ts hold esta b lish e d a ttitu d e s toward th is in v e stig a tio n to e ith e r re fu te or s u b sta n tia te the e s tab lish ed hypothesis. D efin itio n s s tu d y. The follow ing terms and th e ir d e fin itio n s were used in th is A ttitu d es A ttitu d es are emotional p re d isp o sitio n s to a c t in c e rta in ways
8 under c e rta in circum stances. These fe e lin g s may be p o s itiv e, negative, o r any g radation between these extrem es, or in d ec isiv e. In te rc o lle g ia te A th letic Program In te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic s include a l l types o f sp o rts or games in which duly authorized stu d en ts o f one i n s titu tio n o f higher learn in g meet in i n s titu tio n a lly sanctioned c o n tests ag a in st those o f other i n s t i t u t i o n s. Intram ural Recreation Program The intram ural re c re a tio n program o ffe rs a larg e v a rie ty of in d iv id u a l, dual, and team sp o rts, a c t i v i t i e s, and com petitions which are sponsored by the Campus Recreation Department. Physical Education A ctiv ity C lasses (100 Level) Physical education a c tiv ity c lasse s (100 le v el) are those a c tiv ity classe s offered for academic c r e d it during the school year by the Department of H ealth, Physical Education, and Recreation. General Education General education, as d istin g u ish ed from p ro fessio n al or vocational education, is : " th a t p a rt which seeks to develop in the stu d en t the common understandings, s k i l l s, and a ttitu d e s needed to function e ffe c tiv e ly as a person, as a member o f a fam ily, and as a c itiz e n in a dem ocratic so ciety " (36: 52). U niversity Students U niversity students are those stu d en ts who are lis te d on the EY-STAT f i l e a t the U niversity of Montana s Computer Center who were
9 se le c te d in the random sample. This f i l e included a l l undergraduate and graduate stu d en ts, both p a rt and fu ll-tim e who were re g iste re d for c la s se s during the spring q u arter o f the 1975-1976 academic school year. This does not include those stu d en ts who were re g iste re d on a sem ester b a s is. Season Ticket A season tic k e t is a pass which is sold by the a th le tic d ep artment to u n iv e rsity stu d en ts which adm its them to a l l in te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic co n tests a t the U niversity o f Montana during the q u arter in which the pass was purchased.
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Several areas were necessary to be recognized w ithin the review o f the l i t e r a t u r e for th is study. These areas or sectio n s included: the s ta tu s o f a ttitu d e research in a t h le tic s and in tram urals; physical education research; intram ural re c re a tio n research ; sp o rt and a th le tic research ; educational research ; and^em antic d if f e r e n tia l research. Before reviewing each se c tio n, i t was necessary to define ex actly what each se ctio n encompassed and why i t was included w ithin the l i t e r a t u r e review. Each of these sectio n s emphasized re la te d a ttitu d e research, but reco g n itio n was also a llo c a te d to o th er re la te d research areas w ithin each se c tio n. The p ast and p resen t s ta tu s of a ttitu d e research in a th le tic s and in tram u rals was the f i r s t se c tio n mentioned. This se ctio n o u tlin ed the need fo r a ttitu d e research w ithin the a th le tic and intram ural pro^ gram a re a s. This was an im portant co n sid eratio n in the ju s tif ic a tio n of the conduction o f th is study. There was a n e c e ssity to recognize s p e c ific areas o f physical education research w ithin th is study because the programs o f a th le tic s, in tram u rals, and physical re c re a tio n have a l l been a t one time or another, re la te d or connected in some way with the physical education program. The physical education research se c tio n was defined in the terms of the follow ing re la te d su b sectio n s: the assessm ent o f stu d e n ts' a ttitu d e s in physical education; the assessm ent of physical education programs; the stu d ie s of extreme a ttitu d e s in physical education; and a ttitu d e measurement sc ales in physical education. 10
The th ird se c tio n to be included was the intram ural re c re a tio n a l 11 se c tio n. Since th is survey study concerned the intram ural re c re a tio n program, the follow ing subsections were id e n tifie d : the s ta tu s of in tram u rals; common intram ural research techniques; a h is to r ic a l overview o f Intram ural research ; a ttitu d e research in in tram urals; the assessm ent o f in tram urals by stu d en ts; and in tram u rals a t the U niversity o f Montana. The next se c tio n to be incorporated was the sp o rt and a th le tic research se c tio n. An emphasis o f th is study concerned the i n t e r c o lle g ia te a th le tic program and th is made i t necessary to define the sp o rt and a th le tic research sectio n through the follow ing subsections: a h is to r ic a l overview o f a th le tic s ; the s ta tu s o f in te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic s ; in te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic program evaluation; a ttitu d e research in a th le tic s ; contemporary sp o rt l i t e r a t u r e ; and i n t e r c o lle g ia te a th le tic s a t the U niversity o f Montana. The f if t h se c tio n, educational research was considered because the programs were evaluated by the u n iv e rsity stu d en ts in the terms of c o n trib u tio n s made by the two programs to th e ir general education. This sectio n s p e c ific a lly id e n tifie d the realm o f re la te d a ttitu d e and e x tra c u rric u la r program research w ithin the education fie ld. The f in a l se c tio n, semantic d if f e r e n tia l research, was covered because th is study u tiliz e d semantic d if f e r e n tia l instru m en tatio n. This s e c tio n was defined through the follow ing subsections: the s ta tu s o f semantic d if f e r e n tia l research ; r e l i a b i l i t y and v a lid ity of the semantic d if f e r e n tia l; re le v a n t semantic d if f e r e n tia l research; and the semantic d if f e r e n tia l in sp o rt and re c re a tio n a l research.
12 A summarization completed the re la te d review chapter. This se c tio n provided a prospectus o f re la te d research areas concerning th is study. The S tatus o f A ttitu d e Research in A th le tic s and Intram urals The i n i t i a l step in reviewing a ttitu d e research in a th le tic s and in tram urals was to evaluate the p ast and p resen t s ta tu s of th is type o f research. This review confirmed the need fo r a ttitu d e research in a t h le tic s and in tram u rals. One o f the e a r l i e s t accounts of the value o f assessin g stu d e n ts' a ttitu d e s was expressed in the work o f Wiedamann and Howe. "The value of obtain in g the re a c tio n o f the student to the forms and processes o f education to which he is exposed has been recognized in recen t years in in s titu tio n s of higher learn in g, and in many of them, e sp e c ia lly o f the so -c a lle d progressive type, surveys of stu d en t opinions are made from time to time or continuously, to serve as guides in the attem pted so lu tio n o f the problems of program development" (85: 15). Several authors expressed the need for a ttitu d e research in sp o rt-o rie n te d programs. Z eigler and Paton pointed out the need to begin a s c ie n ti f i c study o f the management of human organizations in physical education and a th le tic s. "All th is leads up to the p o in t th a t marked progress has been made in s c ie n tif ic in v e stig a tio n s in the f ie ld o f public ad m in istratio n, business ad m in istratio n, educational ad m in istratio n and the behavioral sciences r e la tiv e to the management o f org an izatio n s and human behavior, but the sad fa c t is th a t n e ith e r physical education as a f ie ld nor in te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic s as an e n te rp rise w ithin education is even rem otely aware o f the development. In the long run such ignorance can only r e s u lt in lowered s ta tu s, minor catastro p h e, or even d is a s te r (to these programs)" (109: 131-139). The continued importance of sp o rts and a th le tic com petition as in te rn a l p a rts of our country was a lso re fle c te d by Kenyon and Loy when they
urged the study of physical a c tiv ity as a so c io lo g ica l and so c ia l psychological phenomenon (57: 24-25). In comparison to these e a r lie r re p o rts, Michael declared th at a ttitu d e research has added s ig n ific a n t importance in recen t years. "The attem pt to determ ine a ttitu d e s toward physical education i s not new. Determining the a ttitu d e s has, however, become more im portant with increased student challenge of the ro le and place of the American u n iv e rsity w ithin modern so cie ty. A second fa c to r is the taxpayers re v o lt and the re s u ltin g increase in c r i t i c a l ev a l u ation of a l l asp ects of s ta te and lo cal spending. Some stu d en ts and taxpayers have begun looking a t the high cost of a th l e t i c s, as w ell as physical education f a c i l i t i e s and re la te d programs, and are challenging th e ir values" (133: 1). Regardless of the demand or need fo r more a ttitu d e research and the large amount of s o c ia l psychological l i te r a tu r e concerning the concept of a ttitu d e a v a ila b le, the amount of p ro fessio n al lite r a tu r e concerning stu d en ts' a ttitu d e s toward college a th le tic s and sport programs has not been e x te n s iv e. Sapora refe rre d to the in creasin g e f f o r ts to discover new in fo r mation in the sp e c ific techniques of determ ining the re c re a tio n i n t e r e s ts, h a b its, and a ttitu d e s of a l l people in h is work concerning program 13 planning (33). But in the review of these e f f o r ts, he concluded th at one i s plagued by the fa c t th a t only lim ited b ib lio g rap h ica l resources are a v a ila b le for exam ination, and one may very e a s ily miss im portant re f e re n c e s. Bohnke noted the number of so cia l-p sy ch o lo g ical stu d ies dealing w ith the concept of a ttitu d e in p ro fessio n al physical education has not been c u rre n tly undertaken and presented in research l i t e r a tu r e, but the m ajo rity of th a t research d e a lt with a ttitu d e s of various student groups toward physical education or with th e ir p a rtic ip a tio n in various aspects
14 o f ed u catio n ally o rien te d physical a c tiv ity. A major emphasis o f h is work was asso ciated with the fa c t th a t th ere was an inadequency o f a t t i tude research findings in the areas o f a t h le tic s and sp o rts programs in general and of in te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic s s p e c ific a lly. A dditional reasons can be c o rre la te d to explain why there has been a shortage o f a ttitu d e research in a th le tic and intram ural programs. Edwards s ta te d th a t there are five major reasons why serio u s a n a ly tic a l w ritin g s and research have not kept pace with the development o f widespread in te r e s ts in a th le tic s and the g re a t sig n ific a n c e of sp o rts in American l i f e. 1. Scholarly in v e stig a tio n and w ritin g s have not kept pace with the growth o f a th le tic s r e la tiv e to popular in te r e s t because those who are p ro fe ssio n ally involved in the in s titu tio n are not, fo r the most p a rt, tra in e d or o rie n ted toward carry in g our rigorous research and a n a ly sis. And no s c ie n tif ic research means no s c ie n tif ic rep o rtin g. 2. A second fa c to r is th a t d is c ip lin e s o u tsid e of physical education have tr a d itio n a lly ignored sp o rt as a realm of human behavior worthy o f serio u s sch o la rly in v e stig a tio n. 3. A th ird element has to do with the c h a r a c te r is tic s o f the persons whose cooperation is im perative i f access to the in tric a c ie s of organized sp o rt is to be gained. Such people have l i t t l e p atience or tolerance for p o te n tia l "in tru sio n s" in to th e ir fie ld by "o u tsid e rs". 4. A fourth fa c to r i s th a t many people have succumbed to the sp o rts p ro p ag an d ist s theme th a t organized a th le tic s i s, for the most p a rt, merely re c re a tio n. In sh o rt, throughout the so c ia l s tru c tu re of America, people have tra d itio n a lly accepted the "funand-games" image of sp o rts to the alm ost to ta l exclusion of any co n sid eratio n regarding i t s more serio u s asp ec ts. 5. The f i f t h lim itin g fa c to r i s the s c a rc ity o f research funds. P o te n tia l research on a th le tic s has probably fa lle n victim to more explosive so c ia l problems such as v iolence, race re la tio n s, overp op u latio n, p o llu tio n o f the environment, and o th er generally more tr a d itio n a l concerns o f those bodies th a t fund s c ie n ti f i c research (6: 5-9 ).
In summary, th is sectio n has explained th a t there d e fin ite ly 15 e x is ts a need for a ttitu d e research in sp o rts and a th le tic s. A ttitu d e research was also considered very im portant in assessin g s p o rt-re la te d program areas. Although the conclusion has been made th a t there i s a need and an im portant value in th is type o f research, the amount of a ttitu d e research conducted in a th le tic and intram ural program areas has been r e la tiv e ly lim ited. Physical Education Research S p ecific areas w ithin the f ie ld o f physical education were considered im portant because of the re la tio n s h ip between th is f ie ld and the program areas o f a th le tic s and in tram u rals. The sp e c ific areas presented w ithin th is physical education research sectio n are: the assessm ent of stu d e n ts' a ttitu d e s in physical education; the assessm ent o f physical education programs; the stu d ie s o f extreme a ttitu d e s in physical education; and a ttitu d e measurement sc ale s in physical education. Assessment o f Students* A ttitu d es in Physical Education The m ajority o f a ttitu d e research in physical a c tiv ity programs has been asso ciated w ith the realm o f physical education. Even though th ere has been considerable a ttitu d e research in physical education, B urnstine s ta te d th a t i t was not always c le a r what the s ig n ific a n t purpose o f th is work was as a whole (118). Regardless of th is viewp o in t, A llerd ice (113), Michael (133), and Bohnke (116) expressed th a t attem pts to determine a ttitu d e s toward physical education were not new. However, the m ajority of the research in th is area has been conducted since I960 and the bulk of th is research in th is review has occurred in
16 the l a t e s ix tie s and early se v e n tie s. The most extensive u t i l i z a t i o n o f a ttitu d e research in physical education compared the d iffe re n c e s in a ttitu d e s o f various fa c e ts of stu d e n ts. In an e a rly study, Nelson found a s ig n if ic a n t d ifferen ce in the a ttitu d e s of boys taking ROTC and those taking physical education {67: 17). Those boys en ro lled in physical education had a more favorable a ttitu d e toward physical education than those en ro lled in ROTC. Kappes conducted a two p a rt inventory to determine the a ttitu d e s o f colleg e women toward physical education a t Baylor U niversity in 1954 (55). Through a r e la tiv e ly larg e sample (N= 739), she found a s ig n if ic a n tly high c o rre la tio n (.82) between the enjoyment o f sp e c ific a c t i v i t i e s. She concluded from th is fin d in g th a t i f "carry-over" a ttitu d e s toward an a c tiv ity were to be achieved, o p p o rtu n itie s to develop s a tis fy in g s k i l l s must be provided. In c o n tra st to N elson's study however, she found an in s ig n if ic a n t re la tio n s h ip (c o rre la tio n =.09) between the enjoyment o f s p e c ific a c t i v i t i e s and the general a t t i tude towards physical education. A lo n g itu d in al study was conducted by Jordan a t the U niversity o f Oregon to compare the d iffe re n c e s in a ttitu d e s of male stu d en ts a f te r successive years in co lleg e (124). He completed a follow-up in 1965 of two hundred and seven graduating sen io rs who were involved in the o rig in a l a ttitu d e study conducted by Cross in I960. The s p e c ific purpose of the study was to determine i f there were re la tio n s h ip s between repeated measures o f the a ttitu d e s of stu d en ts toward physical education during four years o f u n iv e rsity l i f e. He found no s ig n if ic a n t change in a t t i tudes between the freshmen and sen io r or between the sophomore and
17 se n io r y ears. His conclusion was th a t a ttitu d e s of college students are not a ffe c te d by four years o f co lle g e. Building upon the evidence provided in the previous stu d ie s, he id e n tifie d a d d itio n al fa c to rs which were not re la te d to a ttitu d e s as follow s: major area o f study; undergraduate grade p o in t average; m arital s ta tu s ; the number of terms o f physical education; and the hours o f p a rtic ip a tio n in intram ural sp o rts, in te rc o lle g ia te a t h le tic s or independent physical a c t i v i t i e s. However, those who p a rtic ip a te d in physical education had s ig n ific a n tly higher mean a ttitu d e s than those with a le s s e r amount o f p a rtic ip a tio n in th is area. This finding then supported the ea rly findings of N elson. Assessment o f Physical Education Programs The general assessm ent o f physical education is s t i l l another area in which a ttitu d e research has been conducted. In 1940, Baker determ ined the a ttitu d e s o f women from various education le v e ls toward p hysical education (45). The m ajority of women were e ith e r in d iffe re n t or m ildly d islik e d physical education. The o ld er su b jec ts were found to be more re p re se n ta tiv e o f th is a ttitu d e. The m ajority o f su b jec ts surveyed p a rtic ip a te d in "mild" physical a c t i v i t i e s, but they tended toward a s p e c ta to r's ro le with a co n cen tratio n o f th e ir p a rtic ip a tio n in one a c tiv ity. In c o n tra st to the unfavorable a ttitu d e s o f women toward p hysical education, Keogh surveyed the general a ttitu d e s of both men and women and found d iff e r e n t, but unique r e s u lts (58). Keogh had observed through o th er stu d ies th a t in d iv id u a ls had le s s acceptance of school programs than o f the values which were proposed for these
18 programs. A study to discover i f there were d iffe ren ce s in stu d e n ts' a ttitu d e s toward the general b e n e fits or values of physical education and also to discover i f there were sex d iffe re n c es in th a t resp ect was conducted by him in 1962. He hypothesized {based on previous observatio n s) th a t both men and women would support the general values or outcomes which were proposed for physical education, but they would in d ic a te le s s support fo r the o p eratio n al school physical education program. The Wear A ttitu d e Inventory was u tiliz e d to e s ta b lis h the a t t i tudes o f two hundred and s ix ty - s ix stu d en ts a t UCLA. I t was gen erally f e l t th a t women would support the so c ia l b e n e fits o f physical education while men would support the physical b e n e fits. Although there was minimal d ifferen ce between the a ttitu d e s o f men and women, i t was not s ig n if ic a n t as both sexes had sim ila r p a tte rn s o f agreement. Women had more favorable a ttitu d e s regarding the importance o f physical education and the value o f a c tiv e p a rtic ip a tio n in a c t i v i t i e s than did th e ir counte rp a rts. Nonetheless, women g en erally in d ic ate d they were not lik e ly to p a r tic ip a te unless req u ired. As hypothesized, men and women supported the values o f physical education, but questioned i t as a school su b je c t. O ne-third o f those sampled did not consider the values derived from physical education j u s t i f i e d for the time consumed. A generalized framework o f response was suggested by acceptance of statem ents re la te d to s o c ia l, em otional, and physical values asso ciated with physical education. He concluded by s ta tin g th a t people may view c e rta in outcomes as "being good for them", but may be unw illing to accept the program as the consequence for the value received. The p o s s ib ility e x iste d th a t people have p o sitiv e a ttitu d e s toward physical education in s p ite of.
19 ra th e r than because o f the school program. In the l a s t decade, a study by Moyer and o th ers fu rth e r contra d ic te d the findings o f Baker (66). These research ers assessed the a ttitu d e s o f college women a t Northern I ll i n o i s U niversity and found general favorableness toward physical education among the two groups o f women stu d ie d. The ju n io rs, however, presented a higher mean score than the sophomores which in d icated a s lig h tly more favorable a ttitu d e. S tudies o f Extreme A ttitu d es in Physical Education In v e stig atio n s o f extreme a ttitu d e s toward physical education have also been conducted to unveil why such a ttitu d e s e x is t. Keogh, in another study, u tiliz e d the Wear A ttitu d e Inventory in an attem pt to id e n tify extreme a ttitu d e s toward physical education (60). He reported no re la tio n s h ip ex isted between negative a ttitu d e s toward physical education and n o n -p a rtic ip a tio n in the program. Mequi went a step fu rth e r in the in v e stig a tio n o f extreme a ttitu d e s (131). Determining why se le c te d male u n iv e rsity stu d en ts exh ib ite d extreme negative and p o sitiv e a ttitu d e s toward physical a c tiv ity encompassed the major emphasis o f h is study. Through the use o f Kenyon's ATPA scale and a sp o rts and physical education questio n n aire, he was able to conclude th a t stu d en ts who ex h ib ited extreme p o sitiv e a ttitu d e s were represented by the follow ing c h a r a c te r is tic s : 1) they had parents who were a c tiv e p a r tic ip a n ts in sp o rt a c t i v i t i e s ; 2) they had b e st frien d s who tended to have a higher degree o f p a rtic ip a tio n and in t e r e s t in sp o rts; 3) they were more su ccessfu l in th e ir sp o rt and physical education experiences; and 4) they su stain ed a continuing
20 p a rtic ip a tio n in sp o rt a c t i v i t i e s throughout a l l le v e ls of school. The opposite c h a r a c te r is tic s were found fo r those stu d en ts possessing extrem ely negative a ttitu d e s. A ttitu d e Measurement Scales in Physical Education Throughout the in v e stig a tio n of the a ttitu d e s of stu d en ts t o ward physical education various sc a le s have been used. In one of the e a r lie s t attem pts to use a known scale in measuring a ttitu d e s, Moore used the "Bues-Remmers" scale to measure the a ttitu d e s of college women a t UCLA (65). The "Bues-Remmers" scale was very adaptable in th a t i t could be used to measure a ttitu d e s toward any a re a. She found highly favorable general a ttitu d e s toward physical a c tiv ity with a median equal to the eig h ty -n in th p e rc e n tile on the "Bues-Remmers" sc a le. A median score equal to the seventy-eighth p e rc e n tile on the "Bues-Remmers" scale was found in answer to the question - "To what extent do you lik e to p a rtic ip a te in physical a c tiv ity? " The r e s u lts of th is study of 1940 and of B aker's study of 1940 were e n tir e ly co n trad icto ry. The d iffe re n t r e s u lts may have possibly been re la te d to the te s tin g method and procedures. In 1968, Edgington c a re fu lly constructed an a ttitu d e scale to determine i f i t would be u sefu l and r e lia b le in measuring the a ttitu d e s of high school freshman boys toward physical education (53). R esults showed th a t th is scale su c c e ssfu lly measured the a ttitu d e s of those freshman boys sampled and th a t the m ajo rity of them had favorable a t t i tudes toward physical education. O^Bryan and O'Bryan a lso concluded th a t the evaluative dimension of the sem antic d if f e r e n tia l was success-
fu i in measuring the a ttitu d e s o f male stu d en ts toward se le cted aspects 21 o f physical education (68). The a ttitu d e s o f the sample they surveyed were favorable to p a rtic ip a tio n in physical education. Summary In concluding th is se c tio n, i t is s ig n if ic a n t to r e ite r a te the view of Burnstine when he s ta te d th a t although there has been a g rea t deal o f a ttitu d e research conducted in physical education i t has not always been c le a r what the purpose o f th is work was as a whole (118). There have been stu d ie s in th is area which are co n trad icto ry to each o th er. The m ajority o f research has compared numerous v ariab les with those a ttitu d e s possessed by the surveyed s u b je c ts. The a ttitu d e s of the m ajority of stu d en ts have been favorable toward physical education and various scales have been used su cc essfu lly in measuring these a t t i tudes. Intram ural R ecreation Research The follow ing se c tio n s were considered necessary in reviewing the l i t e r a t u r e o f th is se c tio n : the s ta tu s o f in tram u rals; common intram ural research techniques; a h is to r ic a l overview o f intram ural research; the assessm ent o f in tram u rals by stu d en ts; and intram urals a t the U niversity o f Montana. This p re se n ta tio n revealed the value and growth o f intram ural re c re a tio n programs w ithin the college and u n iv e rsity s e ttin g. Intram ural re c re a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s g en erally have been conceived as being geared to the in t e r e s t s, a b i l i t i e s, and s k i l l s of the e n tire student body. They are based on v o luntary p a rtic ip a tio n in games,
22 sp o rts, and o th er campus a c t i v i t i e s. The programs are u su ally s e t up to provide s o c ia lly d e sira b le energy o u tle ts, to m otivate stu d en ts to improve th e ir s k i l l s, to provide stu d en ts w ith ways in which they can prepare fo r the wise use o f le is u re time, and to develop in te r e s t in wholesome a c t i v i t i e s th a t have a "carry-over" value (141: 1-2). The S tatu s o f Intram urals Intram ural re c re a tio n a l programs are not considered academica lly -o rie n te d programs and sin ce th e ir in cep tio n a t co lleges and u n iv e r s itie s, they have had to base th e ir ex isten ce on ed u catio n ally - o rien ted o b je c tiv e s. W illiams and Hughes were among the f i r s t to argue for viewing th is program as an asp ect o f education. " I t would appear, th erefo re th a t physical education through i t s sp o rts and games provides unique educative o p p o rtu n ities in s o c ia liz a tio n, the s e ttin g up o f stan d ard s, and the formation of a t t i t u d e s... and again, the a p p reciatio n o f fine play and generous a ttitu d e i s an educational o b je c tiv e." (44: 102) Intram ural programs a t th is time were considered p a rt o f the p h y sic a l' education program. The World Wars developed the need for the o ffe rin g o f more youth f itn e s s a c t i v i t i e s. The depression o f the 1930's and the re s u ltin g leg is la tio n o f the Roosevelt a d m in istratio n created more re c re a tio n a l areas. These h is to r ic a l events were c a ta ly s ts in the development o f more le isu re time a c t i v i t i e s. The advancement o f science and technology with the re s u ltin g in creases in autom ation and decreases in employee work hours have also enhanced the im portance of re c re a tio n a l a c tiv itie s as a highly valued p a rt o f modern liv in g. These fa c to rs carried over in to the growth of intram ural and re c re a tio n a l departm ents w ithin colleges and u n iv e rs itie s.
23 Hughes and French expressed the reco g n itio n o f intram ural and re c re a tio n a l programs in co lleg es and u n iv e rs itie s came about through a century of stru g g le and concentrated e f f o r t on the p a rt of many in f lu e n tia l lead ers in physical education (15: 165). In a somewhat d iffe re n t view point, Mueller and M itchell a ttrib u te d the beginning and growth of in tram u rals as an outcropping o f stu d e n ts' n a tu ra l d esires for sp o rts and com petition (23: 165). As programs developed throughout the country, ad m in istrato rs began to recognize th a t in academic in s titu tio n s there were d e f in ite values in these a c t i v i t i e s for th e ir stu d en ts. Consequently, education lead ers began to incorporate intram ural programs in to the e x tra c u rric u la r a c t i v i t i e s o f the in s titu tio n s. Likewise, Broer and Holland viewed the co n stru ctiv e use o f le is u re time in e x tra c u rric u la r programs in accord with education philosophy in th a t in s titu tio n s must educate the youth to meet problems in te llig e n tly (48). They believed th a t s a tis fy in g stu d en t o b je c tiv e s, needs and in te r e s ts in a p leasan t and stim u la tin g manner would help accomodate th is philosophy su c c e ssfu lly. Closing on th is asp ect. Means (22: v i i i ) has sta te d th a t the n e c e ssity o f the intram ural sp o rts program 's in clu sio n into the college curriculum is no longer questioned by educational ad m in istrato rs. Amuchie (87: 202), also recen tly has sta te d th a t intram ural sports a c t i v i t i e s appear to have emerged as the most popular sin g le undergraduate e x tra c u rric u la r a c tiv ity today. Regardless of these statem ents, there is s t i l l a n ecessity to research fo r defensive or promotional purposes in intram ural re crea tio n program s.
"A non-academic program such as an intram ural sp o rts program in an academic community such as a college or u n iv ersity might have to J u s tify i t s in clu sio n in th a t com m unity..." (107: 79). 24 Stew art explained th a t probably the b e st way to defend or even to promote a program i s through research (107). MacDonald likew ise revealed in h is study of a ttitu d e d ifferen ces between p a rtic ip a n ts and non-partic ip a n ts th a t the inform ation gathered proved to be very valuable in org an izin g, programming, conducting, and evaluating his college physical re c re a tio n program (129). This methodology, in his opinion, was a sound b a sis fo r meeting the needs, in te r e s ts, and d esires o f a g re a te r number o f stu d en t p a rtic ip a n ts and n o n -p artic ip an ts. I t was also deemed very u sefu l in fu rth e r a ttitu d e ap p raisal o f the recrea tio n program. Common Intram ural Research Techniques Other research ers also expressed the value of questionnaires and surveys in determ ining the in te r e s ts, needs, and a ttitu d e s of the stu d e n t population. Pollack s ta te d th a t the questionnaire study can be a s ig n if ic a n t c o n trib u tio n to everyone concerned when in itia tin g, re v isin g or even defending an intram ural sports program i f i t is used in t e l l i g e n t ly (104: 23). Marciani also demonstrated in his study th a t the survey was a very valuable and necessary method in assessing the intram ural program through stu d en t views (99). The questionnaire provided the stu d en ts with the opportunity to help improve the program and also to in flu en ce colleg e ad m in istrato rs to support th e ir req u ests. Zimmer went a step fu rth e r concerning th is point in h is a r t ic le on stu d e n ts in the proceedings o f the National Intram ural A ssociation.