Neural Networks Introduction CIS 32

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Neural Networks Introduction CIS 32

Functionalia Office Hours (Last Change!) - Location Moved to 0317 N (Bridges Room) Today: Alpha-Beta Example Neural Networks Learning with T-R Agent (from before)

direction of search MAX MIN Alpha-Beta Example 3 12 8 2 4 1 14 5 2

direction of search MAX MIN Alpha-Beta Example [-inf, +inf] [-inf, 3] 3 12 8 2 4 1 14 5 2

direction of search MAX MIN Alpha-Beta Example [-inf, +inf] [-inf, 3] 3 12 8 2 4 1 14 5 2

direction of search MAX MIN Alpha-Beta Example [3, +inf] [3, 3] 3 12 8 2 4 1 14 5 2

direction of search MAX MIN Alpha-Beta Example [3, +inf] [3, 3] [-inf, 2] 3 12 8 2 4 1 14 5 2

direction of search MAX MIN Alpha-Beta Example alpha <= beta [3, +inf] alpha = 3 [3, 3] [-inf, 2] X beta = 2 3 12 8 2 4 1 14 5 2

direction of search MAX MIN Alpha-Beta Example [3, 14] no more children [3, 3] [-inf, 2] [-inf, 14] 3 12 8 2 4 1 14 5 2

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Neural Networks: Introduction Now we will look at neural networks, so called because they mimic the structure of the brain. Axonal arborization Synapse Axon from another cell Dendrite Axon Nucleus Synapses Cell body or Soma However, they don t have to be viewed in this way. We will start by thinking of them as an implementation of the kind of stimulus-response agents we looked at in the last lecture. They also provide us with our first taste of learning. The learning angle means we don t have to figure out the model parameters for ourselves.

Networks for Stimulus-Response Production systems can be easily implemented as computer programs. They may also be implemented directly as electronic circuits, as combinations of AND, OR, and NOT gates. (Or as simulations of electronic circuits.) One useful kind of circuit is built of elements whose output is a nonlinear discrete function of a weighted combinations of its inputs. One kind of such unit is a threshold logic unit (TLU). This computes a weighted sum of its inputs, compares this to a threshold, and outputs 1 if the threshold is exceeded, 0 otherwise.

The Boolean functions that can be computed using a TLU are called linearly separable functions.

We can use TLUs to implement some Boolean functions, for instance a simple conjunction: but we can t implement an exclusive-or this way. (Because an XOR is not linearly separable. We will see...)

Boundary Following Agent (from before) We can implement the kind of function used for boundary following.

s2 s3 s4 s5 Activation 0 0 0 0 0(1)+0(1)+0(-2)+0(-2) = 0 0 0 0 0 1 0(1)+0(1)+0(-2)+1(-2) = -2 0 0 0 1 0 0(1)+0(1)+1(-2)+0(-2) = -2 0 0 0 1 1 0(1)+0(1)+1(-2)+1(-2) = -4 0 0 1 0 0 0(1)+1(1)+0(-2)+0(-2) = 1 1 0 1 0 1 0(1)+1(1)+0(-2)+1(-2) = -1 0 0 1 1 0 0(1)+1(1)+1(-2)+0(-2) = -1 0 0 1 1 1 0(1)+1(1)+1(-2)+1(-2) = -3 0 1 0 0 0 1(1)+0(1)+0(-2)+0(-2) = 1 1 1 0 0 1 1(1)+0(1)+0(-2)+1(-2) = -1 0 1 0 1 0 1(1)+0(1)+1(-2)+0(-2) = -1 0 1 0 1 1 1(1)+0(1)+1(-2)+1(-2) = -3 0 1 1 0 0 1(1)+1(1)+0(-2)+0(-2) = 2 1 1 1 0 1 1(1)+1(1)+0(-2)+1(-2) = 0 0 1 1 1 0 1(1)+1(1)+1(-2)+0(-2) = 0 0 1 1 1 1 1(1)+1(1)+1(-2)+1(-2) = -2 0

Simple TLU When we have a simple problem, it is possible that a single TLU can compute the right action. For this to happen we need there to be only two possible actions. For more complex problems (categories), we need a network of TLUs. These are often called neural networks because they have some similarity to the networks of neurons from which the brain is constructed. We can use such a network to implement a T-R program.

TISA Network This network implements a set of production rules.

TISA Network Inputs The input to each unit on the left is the 1 or 0 of the condition. (This might be computed from the by another circuit.)

TISA Network Inputs The input to each unit from the top is a 1 or a 0 Inhibit input from another Unit.

TISA Network Each rule is a: Test, Inhibit, Squelch, Act (TISA) circuit

TISA Network TLU Computes Conjunction TLU Computes Disjunction

TISA Behavior Inhibit is 0 when no rules above have a true condition. Test is 1 if the condition is true. If Test is 1 and Inhibit is 0, Act is 1. If either Test is 1 or Inhibit is 1 then Squelch is 1. If Squelch is 1 then every TISA below is Inhibited.

Learning in neural networks So far we have assumed that the mapping between stimulus and response was programmed by the agent designer. That is not always convenient or possible. When it isn t, then it is possible to learn the right mapping. We will look at the case of learning the mapping for a single TLU.

Learning Process In brief, the learning procedure is as follows. We start with some set of weights: random; uniform Use a Training Set: Run a set of inputs, and look at the outputs: If they don t match, we alter the weights. We keep learning until the weights are right.

Back to the T-R Agent from Before Feature Vector X, maps to a particular action, a:

Supervised Learning Now consider that we have a set of these. Every element of (action). is an X (feature vector) with a corresponding a This is a training set, and the set A of all a are called the classes or labels. The learning problem here is to find a way of describing the mapping from each member of to the appropriate member of A. We want to find a function f(x) which is acceptable. That is it produces an action which agrees with the examples for as many members of the training set as possible. Because we have a set of examples to learn from, we call this supervised learning.

Learning in a single TLU We train a TLU by adjusting the input weights. We assume that the vector makes sense. The set of weights is numerical so that a weighted sum is denoted by vector The threshold is written as, so: Output is 1 if Output is 0 otherwise Dot Product: is just a way of writing

Hyperplane A TLU divides the space of feature vectors

In two dimensions, the TLU defines a boundary (a line) between two parts of a plane (as in the previous picture). In three dimensions, the TLU defines a plane which separates two parts of the space. In higher-dimension spaces the boundary defined by the TLU is a hyperplane. Whatever it is, it separates: from

Changing Changing moves the boundary relative to the origin. alters the orientation of the boundary. By convention we will assume that: Simplifies the maths :-) Arbitrary thresholds can be obtained by adding in an extra weight n+1 which is -0. The n + 1th element of the input vector is always 1. So, we don t restrict ourselves by making this assumption.

Demonstrated in Logic Functions Bias-Weight (Input Hard-Wired to 1) W 0 = 1.5 W 0 = 0.5 W 0 = 0.5 W 1 = 1 W 2 = 1 W 1 = 1 W 2 = 1 W 1 = -1 AND OR NOT Logic Function Inputs

Output is 0 Linear Separability I 1 Output is 1 I 1 I 1 1 1 1? 0 0 1 I 2 0 0 1 I 2 0 0 1 I 2 (a) I 1 and I 2 (b) I1 or I2 (c) I1 xor I2 Boundary is clear for AND and OR, but not for XOR.

Summary: Neural Networks So, we introduced neural networks. We first considered them as an implementation of stimulus-response agents. In this incarnation we adjust the weights by hand. We also started thinking about how to learn the weights automatically.

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